Ch. 4 Virtue Ethics

The fact that wisdom, courage, self-control, justice, faith, hope, and love are stated virtues of the Boy Scouts is an example of __________.

the influence of Aristotle's virtue ethics on Western civilization

Aristotle held that there were two kinds of virtue:

(1) Intellectual (2) Character (or Moral)

Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics is undoubtedly the most complete explication of virtue ethics. For this reason, Aristotle's ethics is more commonly known as virtue ethics . Aristotle's work in ethics considers two major questions: What is the end, goal, or purpose of human life ? And, what science best investigates this end?

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Xiao or Hsiao filial piety or family reverence Chih moral wisdom Junzi or Chun-tzu the ideal man, superior person, or gentle person

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All five of the cardinal relationships are characterized by their reciprocity:

1. Father and son: The father is to act lovingly toward the son by seeing that he is properly educated, protected, and nurtured. In return, the son is to revere the father by willingly accepting guidance and instruction and by caring for his father when he is aged and infirmed. 2. Elder brother and younger brother: The elder brother is to set a good example for the younger brother and is to gently instruct and help him to practice de and li. In return, the younger brother is to respect the older brother's insight and experience. Daughters were also expected to learn from the example of the older brother. Females also have a set of role expectations as daughter, daughter-in-law, sister, wife, mother, and mother-in-law. It was expected that women would abide by the wishes and care for the needs of men. 3. Husband and wife: The husband is expected to adequately provide for the family, to conduct family duties, to serve as the head of the household, to be faithful to his wife, and to accord her respect and honor. In return, the wife is to listen to her husband, tend the household, and care for the children. 4. Older friend and younger friend: The older friend is to be considerate, and in return, the younger friend is to be deferential. If friends are the same age, they are to treat each other respectfully as equals. 5. Ruler and subject: The king is to be benevolent, and in return the subject is to be loyal. As noted, the good ruler leads with de (excellence, virtue, or moral power) through the practice of li (ritual propriety).

Eudaimonia

According to Aristotle, the end of human life is eudaimonia, which is generally translated as "happiness." Happiness is an inadequate translation, for happiness is a feeling, whereas Aristotle is concerned with a kind of activity as opposed to a feeling, although feeling would likely accompany such activity.For this reason, "well-being" is a better translation.

Confucianism

Although Confucianism derives its name from Confucius, many of the principles contained in Confucianism significantly predate Confucius (551-479 B.C.). Very little is known about his life. We do know that he lived during the Spring and Autumn Period, a period of political intrigue and upheaval that preceded the Warring States Period. The information that we have may, in part, be based on legends (Reigel, 2012). Although his ancestors, according to Sima Qian (145-c.85 B.C.), court historian for the Han dynasty, were members of the Royal State of Song, his great grandfather had fled to Lu to escape turmoil. The family fell into poverty and Confucius was raised in impoverished circumstances. Early in life, Confucius held rather menial jobs in accounting and tending livestock (Reigel, 2012). Later in life, Confucius formed a school and took part in the political affairs of Lu. At age fifty, Duke Ding of Lu appointed him Minister of Public Works and later Minister of Crime.

Teachings of Confucius

Although Confucius had many disciples, two of his disciples were highly instrumental in promoting his teachings. Neither of these disciples actually studied under Confucius, but they were greatly influenced by his writings. Mengzi (391-308 B.C.), also known as "Mencius," idealized many of Confucius's teachings and argued that humanity is, by nature, basically good; therefore, what we need to do is nurture that basic goodness as one would nurture a plant into full bloom. In contrast, Xunzi (310-219 B.C.) maintained that humanity is, by nature, basically evil. When people act out of self-interest, conflict and evil result. Therefore, one must cultivate goodness through discipline. Xunzi compared moral development to straightening bent wood or sharpening a blade with stone. *Confucianism places a heavy emphasis on the gradual cultivation of the self such that virtuous actions become habitual, a natural part of one's character. In that a person's identity is closely tied to family and state, Confucian ethics is inherently social.*

Influence of Virtue Ethics: Boy & Girl Scouts

Another example of the influence of Aristotle's virtue ethics is found in the scouting movement. Wisdom, courage, self-control, justice, faith, hope, and love are the stated Webelos virtues within the Boy Scouts. The Girl Scouts have a similar set of virtues—empathy, conscience, self-control, respect, kindness, tolerance, and fairness. The scouting movement attempts to teach character and skills. Other institutions have similar statements of values and virtues; for example, Rotary International's Four-Way Test: "Is it the truth? Is it fair to all concerned? Will it build goodwill and better friendships? Will it be beneficial to all concerned?"

Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics

Aristotle (384-323 B.C.) studied under Plato (427-347 B.C.) who studied under Socrates (470-399 B.C.). The Nicomachean Ethics is thought to have been written between 348-345 B.C., when Aristotle was 36 to 39 years old. The Nicomachean Ethics was named after Aristotle's son, Nichomachus.

Politics as a Tool

Aristotle held that politics is the science which most fully investigates the end or purpose of human life. At the close of the Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle observes that his predecessors have failed to fully examine the nature of legislation and suggests that it be studied, especially the constitution, with the intent of completing "to the best of our ability our philosophy of human nature" (Aristotle, 1181b). He further appeals, "In the light of the constitutions collected let us study what sorts of influence preserve and destroy states, and what sorts preserve or destroy the particular kinds of constitution, and to what causes it is due that some are well and others ill administered" (Aristotle, 1181b). His closing sentence, a beautiful statement, may be interpreted as "Come, let us get on with our inquiry" (Aristotle, 1181b).

Differences Between Virtue Ethics and Moral Self-Cultivation

Aristotle's virtue ethics focuses more on virtues as they are observed and practiced in society, whereas Confucian moral self-cultivation is grounded in ren (goodness and compassion) and xiao (family reverence or family feeling). Once a child has developed family reverence, it may be extended to friends, neighbors, and ultimately all humanity. Although Confucian moral self-cultivation emphasizes the place of chih (wisdom, moral understanding, or judgment) it does not occupy the same level of importance in Aristotle's virtue ethics. if we do not possess chih, it is because we have not properly developed our moral sensibilities. Aristotle emphasizes that reason is what truly distinguishes us as humans, for reason enables us to impose a rule or a plan on growth, reproduction, or sensation. Aristotle emphasizes the importance of both practical and theoretical reason, and identifies contemplation as the highest kind of activity. ----- Character Development Focuses on character development as opposed to ethical rules or consequences Focuses on character development as opposes to ethical rules or consequences Practice of Virtues One practice the virtues such that acting virtuously becomes a habit One practices the virtues such that acting virtuously becomes a habit (selfcultivation) Virtuous Action as a Mean Virtue is a mean between two extremes; it is a middle way between excess and deficiency Li emphasizes ritual propriety as the mean between extremes Justice or Righteousness Chief virtue for Aristole; harmonious or right relationships Yi as moral sensibility, the desire to do the right thing Ideal Life Life of contemplation and exercise of virtues by the practically wise, virtuous person Junzi who embodies the virtues of kindness, wisdom, rectitude, sincerity and decorum

The Ideal Life

As Aristotle observes, pleasures accompany our activities. Those pleasures most enjoyed by the practically wise person are the truest pleasures, and these pleasures accompany the activities which complete our human function.

Key Concepts of Confucianism: Chih

Chih is translated as "wisdom," "moral understanding," or "judgment." Chih was later added to Confucian thought by Mencius who held that people were by nature good, and that they inherently or innately know right from wrong. Confucius held that people have the potential to become good; Mencius held that people are good and moral. According to Mencius, evil comes from survival instincts, from the disarray of one's society and culture, and from lack of knowledge and wisdom. If we do not possess this knowledge and wisdom, it is because we have not properly developed our moral sensibilities. In this respect, Mencius is very similar to Plato, who held that evil results from ignorance.

Influence of Virtue Ethics

Christian theology and moral philosophy were highly influenced by Greek philosophy. One can readily see the influence of Aristotle's virtue ethics on the Catholic understanding of the Christian moral life. The Catechism begins with a consideration of the goal of life and then moves to a consideration of virtues and vices. Plato and Aristotle identified four major virtues—temperance, courage, practical wisdom, and justice. These were adopted and named the "cardinal virtues" (from the Latin cardo, or hinge); human fulfillment hinged upon these virtues (Sedgwick, 1999). Three "theological virtues"—faith, hope, and love—were added. The cardinal virtues were understood as habits. The theological virtues were viewed as divine gifts of God's grace. And all of the virtues were understood to encompass knowledge of the good, a knowledge which comes from one's experience of God, which in turn helped to form the self (Sedgwick, 1999).

Teleological

Exhibiting or relating to design or purpose especially in nature.

View of Human Nature

Confucius (551-479 B.C.) Humanity has the potential to become moral Mengzi (391-308 B.C.) Humanity is by nature basically good; we must nurture that basic goodness Xunzi (310-219 B.C.) Humanity is by nature basically evil; we must cultivate goodness through discipline

The Right Action, the Right Feeling

Contemporary virtue theorists include ethicists Elizabeth Anscombe, Bernard Williams, and Alasdair MacIntyre. While they all critique moral theories that are grounded in a system of rules or consequences, MacIntyre is the best known of the three due to his publication of After Virtue (1981). All take the position that ethics is better grounded in character than in rules and consequences. Good deeds and right actions derive from personal character. Sure, knowledge of ethical theory may be helpful, but ethical theory in and of itself is insufficient to result in moral behavior. One may know a great deal of ethical theory and be a vicious person as opposed to a virtuous person. In After Virtue, Alasdair MacIntyre observes that a virtue is more than acting in a certain manner, it is also to possess certain feelings. When practicing the virtues, it is not enough to cultivate the right action, one must also cultivate the right feeling. Kant was highly opposed to acting out of inclination; he maintained that an action is ethical only if it is performed out of duty. MacIntyre stresses that one must think about what Aristotle's "practically wise and virtuous person" would do, and then act similarly. As virtue also embodies moral knowledge, one must know what one is doing when one chooses to act virtuously, and one must act virtuously for its own sake; it is the right thing. The Barbarians, MacIntyrre In the closing paragraph of After Virtue, MacIntyre sets about comparing the state of our present civilization to that of ancient Rome. He observes that the survival of the virtues through the last dark ages is cause for hope. But he also observes one highly notable difference: "This time...the barbarians are not waiting beyond the frontiers; they have already been governing us for quite some time. And it is our lack of consciousness of this that constitutes part of our predicament. We are not waiting for a God, but for another—doubtless very different—St. Benedict" (MacIntyre, 1981). We are still waiting.

Key Concepts of Confucianism

De (Te) Virtue or moral power Ren or Jen Human-heartedness, benevolence, goodness Li Ritual propriety Yi Righteousness Xiao or Hsiao Filial piety or family reverence Chih Moral wisdom Junzi or Chun-tzu The ideal man, superior person, or gentle person

Strengths of Virtue Ethics

First Strength Virtue ethics recognizes the necessity of developing virtuous human beings, people who possess character and who choose to act out of that character. It is not enough to simply have good acts, rules, or consequences. Despite all of the emphasis on ethics training which is currently taking place within our society, nothing will really change until we place the emphasis on developing character which is embodied in the virtues. Second Strength Virtue ethics recognizes the legitimacy of both reason and emotion, and it seeks to combine them. Virtue ethics combines practical and theoretical reason with feelings. It is virtuous to act in certain ways and virtuous to have certain feelings. As noted, Kant emphasizes that one should act out of duty, as opposed to inclination, whereas the act nonconsequentialist says that we should act on the basis of our emotions or feelings. Classical Greek philosophy and virtue ethics recognize that the wholly integrated person acts out of both reason and emotion. Third Strength Virtue ethics recognizes the legitimacy of moderation, or acting on the basis of the mean relative to each person, which avoids excess and deficiency. For example, courage is the mean between the excess of rashness and the deficiency of cowardice.

The study and acquisition of the intellectual virtues are critical for two reasons:

First, the virtuous person always acts from the right rule, but the framing of this rule requires the exercise of reason by means of the intellect. Second, given that well-being requires that we act from virtue, or if there be more than one virtue present, from the best or most perfect virtue, then we must be capable of determining which virtue is the best or most perfect.

More Differences

For Aristotle, justice (rightness of relationship) is the chief virtue which is present in all other virtues. In Confucian moral self-cultivation, ren (goodness, compassion, loving others) is considered the highest virtue, or the virtue among virtues from which all the other virtues follow. Justice as the highest virtue is reflective of Aristotle's emphasis on reason. Ren is the virtue which recognizes the value of all persons, the value of oneself, and the well-being of all things; it is the basis of all human relationships. Ren gives meaning to life; it makes life worthwhile. Ren is reflective of Confucian moral self-cultivation's emphasis on roles and relationships. In Aristotle's virtue ethics, the highest form of activity is eudaimonia, or well-being or happiness as embodied in the practice of the virtues and contemplation. In Confucian moral self-cultivation, the highest form of activity is living in accord with ren (goodness, compassion) and li (ritual propriety) as they pertain to one's roles and relationships.

Virtue

Often defined as the quality of moral excellence, a state of character. A mean between two extremes; it is a middle way between excess and deficiency.

Dikaiosuné

Righteousness; justice.

A Comparison of Aristotelian Virtue Ethics and Confucian Moral Self-Cultivation

Similarities: 1. In contrast to most ethical theories which focus on rules and consequences, Aristotle's virtue ethics and Confucius's moral self-cultivation are highly concerned with the development of character. 2. Both also recognize the importance of discipline, or of practicing the virtues until they become habitual in nature, or a part of one's character. Virtue must become a way of life as opposed to something that is practiced on occasion. 3. Both recognize that virtuous action is a mean between two extremes. In Confucian self-cultivation, li places considerable emphasis on propriety as an expression of the mean, or the middle way between extremes. Yi (righteousness) works in concert with ren (loving action) to assure that loving action is also expressive of the mean. ---- Character Development Focuses on character development as opposed to ethical rules or consequences Focuses on character development as opposed to ethical rules or consequences Practice of Virtues One practices the virtues such that acting virtuously becomes a habit One practices the virtues such that acting virtuously becomes a habit (self-cultivation) Virtuous Action as a Mean Virtue is a mean between two extremes; it is a middle way between excess and deficiency Li emphasizes ritual propriety as the mean between extremes Justice or Righteousness Chief virtue for Aristotle; harmonious or right relationships Yi as moral sensibility, the desire to do the right thing Ideal Life Life of contemplation and exercise of virtues by the practically wise, virtuous person Junzi who embodies the virtues of kindness, wisdom, rectitude, sincerity, and decorum

Key Concepts of Confucianism: De or Te

The Chinese de is often translated as "virtue," or "moral power." Originally, de referred to "a kind of power that accrued to or resided within an individual that acted favorably toward a spirit or another person" (Ivanhoe, 2000). It came to refer to the virtue or moral power by means of which a ruler could rule without the use of manipulation or force. The ruler cultivated de through the practice of li, or ritual propriety. Rituals consisted of the "ceremonies that defined and punctuated the lives of ancient Chinese aristocracy" (Riegel, 2012). According to Riegel (2012), these rituals included sacrificial rites as an expression of "humility and thankfulness," toasting, the exchange of gifts, and "acts of politeness and decorum—such things as bowing and yielding—that identified their performers as gentlemen." De: Ethical Self Transformation The concept of de was ultimately extended beyond the confines of the court. One who cultivated and practiced de would experience ethical self-transformation. As such, de carries with it a sense of achieving moral excellence, achieving one's potential, and becoming all that one can be. However, one must remember that this was not achieved for one's own self or interest; rather, it was always understood that one cultivated one's life to be a better member of the community. As Richey (2005) observes, "Confucius's vision of order unites aesthetic concerns for harmony and symmetry (li) with moral force (de) in pursuit of social goals: a well-ordered family, a well-ordered state, and a well-ordered world. Such an aesthetic, moral, and social program begins at home, with the cultivation of the individual."

The Contemplative Life

The contemplative life, the life of contemplative reason, is the ideal life in that it is loved for itself; in contrast, practical reason and its associated activities aim at something else. But contemplative happiness is not the only form of well-being. Well-being is also present in the life lived in accord with moral virtues and practical reason. The moral life is a second form of well-being which actually aids us in achieving the life of contemplation, the highest form of well-being.

Key Concepts of Confucianism: Li

The virtue li (ritual propriety or order) at one time referred to sacrificial rites and ceremonies. The concept was later extended to include all rites and ceremonies associated with ordering life. These rites and ceremonies were revered and were passed from one generation to another. As such, li came to serve as a guide to human conduct and relationships; one must cultivate li if one is to fully participate in community life. So the concepts of ren and li are intertwined in that ren (loving action) requires the order and propriety associated with li if it is to be fully and properly expressed. As with Aristotle's virtue ethics, li places considerable emphasis on propriety as an expression of the mean, or the middle way between extremes. Conduct within the five cardinal relationships is also grounded in li, for li dictates the social propriety associated with each of those relationships: All five of the cardinal relationships are characterized by their reciprocity. In each relationship, both parties have a particular set of expectations or duties which are to be met. Further, all five relationships are hierarchical except for the "friends of the same age" relationship.

Key Concepts of Confucianism: Junzi

This aspect of Confucianism is also known as chun-tzu, which refers to the ideal person. As previously noted, Confucianism places great emphasis on moral self-cultivation to the point of achieving excellence of character and abilities. The junzi is one who has achieved this level of development. This concept is very similar to Aristotle's notion of the "practically wise, virtuous person." Such a person is at peace with oneself and the world. Very few people ever attain to this ideal. Those who do embody the five virtues: kindness, wisdom, rectitude, sincerity, and decorum. The junzi embodies all the virtues of Confucianism: de, ren, li, yi, xiao, and chih.

Additional Similarties Between Virtue Ethics and Moral Self-Cultivation

Virtue ethics and moral self-cultivation both recognize the importance of justice or righteousness (rightness of relationships). The ancient Greek understanding of justice is considerably broader than our Western emphasis on justice in the legal sense. The ancient Greek concept of justice or righteousness conveyed the sense of a harmonious or right relationship of a thing to its environment; for example, the balance of a wheel or the way a ship sits in the water. It is in this broadened sense that we see some commonality with the Confucian concept of yi (righteousness). Yi gives one the sense of what action is right. However, as we will see in the treatment of differences, the concept of justice is accorded a very different place in Confucian moral self-cultivation. Virtue ethics and moral self-cultivation recognize an ideal way of life. For Aristotle, this life is grounded in contemplation and the exercise of the moral virtues by the "practically wise, virtuous person." For Confucian moral self-cultivation, the ideal person is the junzi who embodies the five virtues (kindness, wisdom, rectitude, sincerity, and decorum) and who is at peace with the world.

Aristotle's work in ethics considers two major questions:

What is the end, goal, or purpose of human life? And, what science best investigates this end? Aristotle fully treats the first question, and briefly touches upon the second question, in the Nicomachean Ethics.

Key Concepts of Confucianism: Hsiao, or Xiao

Xiao is translated as "filial piety," "family reverence," or "family feeling." In Western cultures, we emphasize rationality, freedom, and autonomy; as a consequence, Western cultures are highly individualistic. In contrast, Asian cultures place much greater emphasis on the individual in the context and network of role relationships. Aspects of xiao include reverence for one's parents, one's family name, and family honor. Xiao provides the early familial experiences which promote the development of ren (goodness and compassion). Once a child has developed the proper level of family reverence or family feeling, those same feelings may be extended to those beyond one's immediate family circle—to the extended family, to friends, neighbors, society, and all of humanity. For this reason, xiao is fundamental to Confucian ethics.

Key Concepts of Confucianism: Yi

Yi is generally translated as "righteousness"; as such, it includes moral sensibility (the ability to discern what is right) and the desire to do the right thing for the simple reason that it is the right to do. Given that yi involves the ability to discern what is right in any given context, it is not the expression of set rules or principles; it is grounded in intuition. Further, consequences are immaterial. Yi works in concert with ren (loving action) to assure that loving action is also expressive of the mean.

Moral Values

You may have noticed that justice fails to appear on the table of moral vitures. The ancient Greek concept of justice or righteousness (dikaiosuné) was grounded in the idea of right relationship. And the notion of justice extended beyond our actions toward others.

Nicomachean Ethics

heavily emphasizes the role of virtue in ethics; the emphasis is on character as opposed to duty (Kant's Duty Ethics) or pleasure (Utilitarianism). Aristotle does not begin by asking what actions are right or wrong; rather he analyzes human character in terms of virtuousness or viciousness. -is undoubtedly the most complete explication of virtue ethics. For this reason, Aristotle's ethics is more commonly known as virtue ethics, and when people speak of virtue ethics, Aristotle is usually who people have in mind. -Nicomachean Ethics begins with the following statement: "Every art and every inquiry, and similarly every action and pursuit, is thought to aim at some good; and for this reason the good has rightly been declared to be that at which all things aim" -According to Aristotle, every action aims at something other than itself. For example, the end of medicine is health, the end of economic activity is wealth, and the end of reading is knowledge or pleasure. Because virtue ethics examines the end, goal, or purpose of human life, virtue ethics is teleological in nature.

Confucianism embodies several key concepts: De (Te)

virtue or moral power ; Ren or Jen human-heartedness or benevolence ; Li ; and Yi