Ch 6-9

The Land Frontier and the Sea Frontier

1777 was known as the "bloody year" on the frontier, as Indians went on a scalping spree. Most of the Indians supported Britain and believed that if they won, it would stop American expansion into the West, and save Indian land. Mohawk chief Joseph Brant, recently converted to Anglicanism, and his men ravaged the backcountry of Pennsylvania and New York until checked by the Americans in 1779. In 1784, the pro-British Iroquois (the Oneidas and the Tuscaroras had sided with the Americans, the other four with the British) signed the Treaty of Fort Stanwix, the first treaty between the U.S. and an Indian nation. Under its terms, the Indians ceded most of their land. Even in wartime, pioneers moved west, showing their gratitude to the French with such town names as Louisville while remembering the revolution with Lexington, Kentucky. George Rogers Clark, an audacious frontiersman, floated down the Ohio River with about 175 men in 1778-1779 and captured forts Kaskaskia, Cahokia, and Vicennes in quick succession. The tiny American navy never really hurt the British warships, but it did destroy British merchant shipping and carried the war into the waters around the British Isles. Swift privateers preyed on enemy shipping, capturing many ships and forcing them to sail in convoys. In 1784, the Iroquois were forced to sign the Treaty of Fort Stanwix, which was the first treaty between the United States and an Indian nation. They ceded most of their land to the Americans. George Rogers Clark: conceived the idea of capturing the British forts located in the Illinois country in 1778-1779. John Paul Jones is known as the father of the navy. He employed the tactic of privateering. Privateering: when privately owned and crewed vessels were authorized by a government during a wartime to attack and capture enemy vessels, men, cargo, etc; it diverted the enemy's manpower from the main war effort; it brought in needed gold, harassed the enemy, and raised American morale by providing victories in a time when victories were few.

American Pluses and Minuses

Advantages Americans had great leaders like George Washington (giant general), and Ben Franklin (smooth diplomat). They also had French aid (indirect and secretly), as the French provided the Americans with guns, supplies, gunpowder, etc... Marquis de Lafayette, at age 19, was made a major general in the colonial army and was a great asset. The colonials were fighting in a defensive manner, and they were self-sustaining. They were better marksmen. A competent American rifleman could hit a man's head at 200 yards. The Americans enjoyed the moral advantage in fighting for a just cause, and the historical odds weren't unfavorable either. Disadvantages Americans were terribly lacking in unity, though. Jealousy was prevalent, as colonies resented the Continental Congress' attempt at exercising power. Sectional jealousy boiled up over the appointment of military leaders; some New Englanders almost preferred British officers to Americans from other colonies. Americans had little money. Inflation also hit families of soldiers hard, and made many people poor. Americans had nothing of a navy. Americans benefited from good leadership and from the fact that they were fighting defensively. They were poorly organzied, though. Marquis de Lafayette: Frenchman who was made a major general in the colonial army at the age of 19; the "French Gamecock"; his services were invaluable in securing further aid from France. The Articles of Confederation was adopted in 1781. It was the first written constitution adopted by colonists. Due to the lack of metallic money in America, Continental Congress was forced to print "Continental" paper money. Within a short time, this money depreciated significantly and individual states were forced to print their own paper money.

The Loyalist Exodus

After the Declaration of Independence, Loyalists and Patriots were more sharply divided, and Patriots often confiscated Loyalist property to resell it (an easy way to raise money). Some 50,000 Loyalists served the British in one way or another (fighting, spying, etc...), and it was an oddity that the Brits didn't make more use of them during the war. Before the Declaration of Independence, the Loyalists were not extensively persecuted. After the declaration, though, they were subjected to more ridicule, hangings, and imprisonment. Many Loyalists fled to the British lines.

Economic Crosscurrents

After the Revolution, Loyalist land was seized, but people didn't chop heads off (as later in France). Goods formerly imported from England were cut off, forcing Americans to make their own. Still, America remained agriculturalist by a large degree. Industrialization would come much later. Prior to war, Americans had great trade with Britain, and now they didn't. But they could now trade with foreign countries, and with any nation they wanted to, a privilege they didn't have before. Yankee shippers like the Empress of China (1784) boldly ventured into far off places. However, inflation was rampant, and taxes were hated. The rich had become poor, and the newly rich were viewed with suspicion. Disrespect of private property became shocking. Economic democracy preceded political democracy. After gaining its independence, the United States had limited trade with Britain, so it had to start making more products "in-house." The post-war economy was not very good, and many Americans were poorer after the war.

The Stamp Tax Uproar

After the Seven Years' War (French & Indian War), Britain had huge debt, and though it fairly had no intention of making the Americans pay off all of it for Britain, it did feel that Americans should pay off one-third of the cost, since Redcoats had been used for the protection of the Americans. Prime Minister George Grenville, an honest and able financier but not noted for tact, ordered that the Navigation Laws be enforced, arousing resentment of settlers. He also secured the Sugar Act of 1764, which increased duty on foreign sugar imported from the West Indies; after numerous protests from spoiled Americans, the duties were reduced. The Quartering Act of 1765 required certain colonies to provide food and quarters for British troops. In 1765, he also imposed a stamp tax to raise money for the new military force. The Stamp Act mandated the use of stamped paper or the affixing of stamps, certifying payment of tax. Stamps were required on bills of sale for about 50 trade items as well as on certain types of commercial and legal documents. Both the Stamp Act and the Sugar Act provided for offenders to be tried in the admiralty courts, where defenders were guilty until proven innocent. Grenville felt that these taxes were fair, as he was simply asking the colonists to pay their share of the deal; plus, Englishmen paid a much heavier stamp tax. Americans felt that they were unfairly taxed for an unnecessary army (hadn't the French army and Pontiac's warriors been defeated?), and they lashed out violently, especially against the stamp tax. Americans formed the battle cry, "No taxation without representation!" Americans were angered, mostly, to the principle of the matter at hand. Americans denied the right of Parliament to tax Americans, since no Americans were seated in Parliament. Grenville replied that these statements were absurd, and pushed the idea of "virtual representation," in which every Parliament member represented all British subjects (so Americans were represented). Americans rejected "virtual representation" as hogwash. Britain incurred a large debt due to the Seven Years War, most of which was created defending the North American colonies. Britain began to look for ways of getting the colonists to pay for this debt. In 1763, Prime Minister George Grenville ordered the British navy to begin strictly enforcing the Navigation Laws. He also got Parliament to pass the Sugar Act of 1764, the first law ever passed by Parliament to raise tax revenue in the colonies for England. The Sugar Act increased the duty on foreign sugar imported from the West Indies. The Quartering Act of 1765 required certain colonies to provide food and quarters for British troops. In 1765, Grenville imposed a stamp tax on the colonies to raise revenue to support the new military force. This stamp tax, known as the Stamp Act, required colonists to use stamped paper to certify payment of taxes on goods like newspapers, legal documents, and diplomas. American colonists started to rebel against the newly passed taxation measures as they felt the laws were starting to impinge on their liberties.

Congress Drafts George Washington

After the bloodshed at Lexington and Concord in April of 1775, about 20,000 Minutemen swarmed around Boston, where they outnumbered the British. The Second Continental Congress met in Philadelphia on May 10, 1775, with no real intention of independence, but merely a desire to continue fighting in the hope that the king and Parliament would consent to a redress of grievances. It sent another list of grievances to Parliament. It also adopted measures to raise money for an army and a navy. It also selected George Washington to command the army. Washington had never risen above the rank of colonel, and his largest command had only been of 1,200 men, but he was a tall figure who looked like a leader, and thus, was a morale boost to troops. He radiated patience, courage, self-discipline, and a sense of justice, and though he insisted on working without pay, he did keep a careful expense account amounting to more than $100,000. The Second Continental Congress selected George Washington to lead the Continental army.

General Washington at Bay

After the evacuation of Boston, the British focused on New York as a base for operations. An awe-inspiring fleet appeared off the coast in July 1776, consisting of some 500 ships and 35,000 men—the largest armed force seen in America ever until the Civil War. Washington could only muster 18,000 ill-trained men to fight, and they were routed at the Battle of Long Island. Washington escaped to Manhattan Island, crossed the Hudson River to New Jersey, reaching the Delaware River with taunting, fox-hunt calling Brits on his heels. He crossed the Delaware River at Trenton on a cold December 26, 1776, and surprised and captured a thousand Hessians who were sleeping off their Christmas Day celebration (drinking). He then left his campfires burning as a ruse, slipped away, and inflicted a sharp defeat on a smaller British detachment at Princeton, showing his military genius at its best. It was odd that Gen. William Howe, the British general, didn't crush Washington when he was at the Delaware, but he well remembered Bunker Hill, and was cautious. The British concentrated their forces in New York City instead of Boston because Boston was evacuated in March 1776. In 1776, General Washington and his men were overpowered by the British at the Battle of Long Island. Washington and his men escaped to Manhattan Island. General William Howe was General Washington's adversary. On December 26, 1776, Washington crossed the Delaware River to surprise and capture 1,000 Hessians in Trenton.

A Convention of "Demigods"

An Annapolis, Maryland convention was called to address the Articles' inability to regulate commerce, but only five states were represented. They decided to meet again. On May 25, 1787, 55 delegates from 12 states (Rhode Island wasn't there) met in Philadelphia to "revise the Articles only." Among them were people like Hamilton, Franklin, and Madison. However, people like Jefferson, John and Sam Adams, Thomas Paine, Hancock, and Patrick Henry were not there. Notably the Patriots like Sam Adams were seen as too radical. In 1786, Virginia called for a convention at Annapolis, Maryland to deal with the issue of interstate commerce. Alexander Hamilton saved the convention from collapsing (delegates from only 5 states showed up). He called Congress to meet in Philadelphia the next year to fix entire fabric of the Articles of Confederation. Alexander Hamilton was an advocate of a powerful central government. On May 25, 1787, 55 representatives from every state except for Rhode Island were sent to Philadelphia to discuss how the government should operate. (Constitutional Convention) George Washington was elected as the leader.

Yorktown and the Final Curtain

Before the last decisive victory, inflation continued to soar, and the government was virtually bankrupt. It announced that it could only repay many of its debts at a rate of 2.5 cents on the dollar. However, Cornwallis was blundering into a trap. Retreating to Chesapeake Bay and assuming that British control of the seas would give him much needed backup, Cornwallis instead was trapped by Washington's army, which had come 300 miles from NY, Rochambeau's French army, and the navy of French Admiral de Grasse. After hearing the news of Cornwallis' defeat, Lord North cried, "Oh God! It's all over!" Stubborn King George wanted to continue the war, since he still had 54,000 troops in North America and 32,000 in the U.S., and fighting did continue for about a year after Yorktown, especially in the South, but America had won. From 1780-1781, the U.S. government was nearly bankrupt. British General Cornwallis retreated to the Chesapeake Bay at Yorktown to await seaborne supplies and reinforcements. Admiral de Grasse joined the Americans in an assault of Cornwallis via the sea. George Washington, along with Rochambeau's French army and Admiral de Grasse, cornered Cornwallis. He was forced to surrender on October 19, 1781.

A New Nation Legitimized

Britain ceded so much land because it was trying to entice America from its French alliance. Remember, George Rogers Clark had only conquered a small part of that western land. Also, during the time, the American-friendly Whigs were in control of the Parliament, which was not to be the case in later years. France approved the treaty, though with cautious eyes. In truth, America came out the big winner, and seldom, if ever, have any people been so favored.

The Townshend Tea Tax and the Boston "Massacre"

Charles "Champaign Charley" Townshend (a man who could deliver brilliant speeches in Parliament even while drunk) persuaded Parliament to pass the Townshend Acts in 1767. They put light taxes on lead, paper, paint, and tea, which were later repealed, except tea. In 1767, New York's legislature was suspended for failure to comply with the Quartering Act. Tea became smuggled, though, and to enforce the law, Brits had to send troops to America. On the evening of March 5, 1770, a crowd of about 60 townspeople in Boston were harassing some ten Redcoats. One fellow got hit in the head, another got hit by a club. Without orders but heavily provoked, the troops opened fire, wounding or killing eleven "innocent" citizens, including Crispus Attucks, a black former-slave and the "leader" of the mob in the Boston Massacre. Attucks became a symbol of freedom (from slave, to freeman, to martyr who stood up to Britain for liberty). Only two Redcoats were prosecuted. In 1767, Parliament passed the Townshend Acts. They put a light import tax on glass, white lead, paper, paint, and tea. American colonists were rebellious to the new taxes and as a result of these rebellions, the British landed 2 regiments of troops in the colonies in 1768. On March 5, 1770, a crowd of 60 townspeople attacked 10 redcoats and the redcoats opened fired on the civilians, killing/wounding 11 of them. The massacre was known as the Boston Massacre.

The Great Debate in the States

Elections were run to elect people into the state conventions. Four small states quickly ratified the Constitution, and Pennsylvania was the first large state to act. In Massachusetts, a hard fought race between the supporters and detractors (including Samuel Adams, the "Engineer of Revolution" who now resisted change), and Massachusetts finally ratified it after a promise of a bill of rights to be added later. Had this state not ratified, it would have brought the whole thing down. Three more states ratified, and on June 21, 1788, the Constitution was officially adopted after nine states (all but Virginia, New York, North Carolina, and Rhode Island) had ratified it. Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Georgia, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Maryland, South Carolina, and New Hampshire were the first 9 states to sign the Constitution. Virginia, New York, North Carolina, and Rhode Island were the only states to not sign it. (4 Laggard States)

Revolution in Diplomacy?

France was eager to get revenge on Britain, and secretly supplied the Americans throughout much of the war. The Continental Congress sent delegates to France. The delegates were guided by a "Model Treaty" which sought no political or military connections, but only commercial ones. Ben Franklin played the diplomacy game by wearing simple gray clothes and a coonskin cap to supposedly exemplify a raw new America After the humiliation at Saratoga, the British offered the Americans a measure that gave them home rule—everything they wanted except independence. After Saratoga, France finally was persuaded to enter the war against Britain. Louis XVI's ministers argued that this was the perfect time to act, because if Britain regained control, she might then try to capture the French West Indies for compensation for the war. Now was the time to strike, rather than risk a stronger Britain with its reunited colonies. France, in 1778, offered a treaty of alliance, offering America everything that Britain had offered, plus recognition of independence. The Americans accepted the agreement with caution, since France was pro-Catholic, but since the Americans needed help, they'd take it. The French wanted to support the American quest for independence in the hopes that they could destabilize the British empire. The Continental Congress drafted a Model Treaty which dictated that the Americans would only have a commercial trading connection with the French (i.e. no political or military connections). The British offered the Americans home rule after the British lost at the Battle of Saratoga. The French feared American-British reconciliation, so in 1778, the French made an open alliance with the Americans. The French would join the fight against the British for American independence.

Blow and Counterblow

French reinforcements, commanded by Comte de Rochambeau, arrived in Newport, Rhode Island in 1780, but flares sometimes erupted between the Americans and the French. In 1780, feeling unappreciated and lured by British gold, Gen. Benedict Arnold turned traitor by plotting with the British to sell out West Point. When the plot was discovered, he fled with the British. "Whom can we trust now?" cried George Washington in anguish. The British devised a plan to roll up the colonies from the South. Georgia was ruthlessly overrun in 1778-1779. Charleston, South Carolina, fell in 1780. In the Carolinas, Patriots bitterly fought their Loyalist neighbors. However, in 1781, American riflemen wiped out a British detachment at King's Mountain, and then defeated a smaller force at Cowpens. At the Carolina campaign of 1781, Quaker-reared tactician Gen. Nathanael Greene distinguished himself with his strategy of delay. By slowly retreating and losing battles but winning campaigns, he helped clear the British out of most of Georgia and South Carolina. General Benedict Arnold turned a traitor against the Americans in 1780. General Nathaniel Greene succeeded in clearing most British troops out of Georgia and South Carolina.

The World's Ugly Duckling

However, Britain still refused to repeal the Navigation Laws, and closed down its trading to the U.S. (proved useless to U.S. smuggling). It also sought to annex Vermont to Britain with help from the Allen brothers and Britain continued to hold a chain of military posts on U.S. soil. One excuse used was that the soldiers had to make sure the U.S. honor its treaty and pay back debts to Loyalists. In 1784, Spain closed the Mississippi River to American commerce. It also claimed a large area near the Gulf of Mexico that was ceded to the U.S. by Britain. At Natchez, on disputed soil, it also held a strategic fort. Both Spain and England, while encouraging Indian tribes to be restless, prevented the U.S. from controlling half of it territory. Even France demanded payment of U.S. debts to France. The pirates of the North African states, including the arrogant Dey of Algiers, ravaged U.S. ships in the area and enslaved Yankee sailors. Worse, America was just too weak to stop them. Britain declined to make any commercial treaty with the colonies or to repeal its Navigation Laws (required the use of British ships to trade with Britain). Lord Sheffield argued in his pamphlet that Britain could win back America's trade without repealing the navigation laws. The British remained in the Americas where they maintained their fur trade with the Indians. The American states did not honor the treaty of peace in regard to debts and Loyalists. The British primarily stayed because they wanted to keep the Indians on their side in case the Americans decided to attack Canada. Spain was openly unfriendly to the Americans. It closed off the Mississippi river to commerce in 1784.

Forced Repeal the Stamp Act

In 1765, representatives from 9 of the 13 colonies met in New York City to discuss the Stamp Tax. The Stamp Act Congress was largely ignored in Britain, but was a step toward inter-colonial unity (similar to the Albany Congress of French & Indian War days). Some colonists agreed to boycott supplies, instead, making their own and refusing to buy British goods. Sons and Daughters of Liberty took the law into their own hands, tarring and feathering violators among people who had agreed to boycott the goods. They also stormed the houses of important officials and took their money. Stunned, demands appeared in Parliament for repeal of the stamp tax, though many wanted to know why 7.5 million Brits had to pay heavy taxes to protect the colonies, but 2 million colonials refused to pay only one-third of the cost of their own defense. In 1766, Parliament repealed the Stamp Act but passed the Declaratory Act, proclaiming that Parliament had the right "to bind" the colonies "in all cases whatsoever." 27 delegates from 9 colonies met in New York City for the Stamp Act Congress of 1765. The members drew up a statement of their rights and grievances and requested the king and Parliament to repeal the hated legislation. The meeting was largely ignored by England, but it was one step towards intercolonial unity. Nonimportation agreements (agreements made to not import British goods) were another stride toward unionism. The Sons of Liberty and Daughters of Liberty took the law into their own hands by enforcing the nonimportation agreements. The Stamp Act was repealed by Parliament in 1766. Parliament passed the Declaratory Act, which reaffirmed England's right to rule absolutely over the American colonies.

Tea Brewing in Boston

In 1773, the powerful British East India Company, overburdened with 17 million pounds of unsold tea, was facing bankruptcy. The British decided to sell it to the Americans, who were suspicious and felt that it was a shabby attempt to trick the Americans with the bait of cheaper tea and paying tax. On December 16, 1773, some Whites, led by patriot Samuel Adams, disguised themselves as Indians, opened 342 chests and dumped the tea into the ocean in this "Boston Tea Party." People in Annapolis did the same and burnt the ships to water level. Reaction was varied, from approval to outrage to disapproval. Edmund Burke declared, "To tax and to please, no more than to love and be wise, is not given to men." In 1773, the British East India Company was overstocked with 17 million pounds of unsold tea. If the company collapsed, the London government would lose tax revenue. Therefore, the London government gave the company the exclusive right to sell tea in America (at a discount). Fearing that it was trick to get the colonists to pay import taxes, the colonists rejected the tea. When the ships arrived in the Boston harbor, the governor of Massachusetts, Thomas Hutchinson, forced the citizens to allow the ships to unload their tea. On December 16, 1773, a band of Bostonians, disguised as Indians, boarded the ships and dumped the tea into the sea. (Boston Tea Party)

Parliament Passes the "Intolerable Acts"

In 1774, by huge majorities, Parliament passed a series of "Repressive Acts" to punish the colonies, namely Massachusetts. These were called the Intolerable Acts by Americans. The Boston Port Act closed the harbor in Boston. Self-government was limited by forbidding town hall meetings without approval. The charter to Massachusetts was revoked. The Quebec Act A good law in bad company, it guaranteed Catholicism to the French-Canadians, permitted them to retain their old customs, and extended the old boundaries of Quebec all the way to the Ohio River. Americans saw their territory threatened and aroused anti-Catholics were shocked at the enlargement that would make a Catholic area as large as the original 13 colonies. Plus, Americans were banned from this region through the Proclamation Line of 1763. In 1774, Parliament punished the people of Massachusetts for their actions in the Boston Tea Party. Parliament passed laws, known as the Intolerable Acts, which restricted colonists' rights. The laws restricted town meetings and required that officials who killed colonists in the line of duty to be sent to Britain for trial (where it was assumed they would be acquitted of their charges). Another law was the Boston Port Act. It closed the Boston harbor until damages were paid and order could be ensured. The Quebec Act was also passed in 1774, but was not apart of the Intolerable Acts. It gave Catholic French Canadians religious freedom and restored the French form of civil law. The American colonists opposed this act for a variety of reasons: it angered anti-Catholics; it extended the land area of Quebec.

Thomas Paine Preaches Common Sense

In 1776, Thomas Paine published the pamphlet Common Sense, which urged colonials to stop this war of inconsistency, stop pretending loyalty, and just fight. Nowhere in the universe did a smaller body control a larger one, so Paine argued, saying it was unnatural for tiny Britain to control gigantic America. He called King George III "the Royal Brute of Great Britain." The Americans continued to deny any intention of independence because loyalty to the empire was deeply ingrained; many Americans continued to consider themselves apart of a transatlantic community in which the mother country of Britain played a leading role; colonial unity was poor; and open rebellion was dangerous. Thomas Paine released a pamphlet called Common Sense in 1776. It argued that the colonies had outgrown any need for English domination and that they should be given independence.

The Colonial War Becomes a Wider War

In 1779, Spain and Holland entered the war against Britain. In 1780, Catherine the Great of Russia took the lead in organizing the Armed Neutrality (she later called it the Armed Nullity) that lined up all of Europe's neutrals in passive hostility against England. America, though it kept the war going until 1778, didn't win until France, Spain, and Holland joined in and Britain couldn't handle them all. Britain, with the French now in the seas, decided to finally evacuate Philadelphia and concentrate their forces in New York, and even though Washington attacked them at Monmouth on a blisteringly hot day in which scores of men died of sunstroke, the British escaped to New York. Spain and Holland became allied against Britain in 1779. Catherine the Great of Russia lead the creation of the Armed Neutrality, which passively allied the remaining neutral European countries against Britain. The British decided to evacuate Philadelphia and concentrate their strength in New York City.

The Abortive Conquest of Canada

In October 1775, the British burned Falmouth (Portland), Maine. The colonists decided that invading Canada would add a 14th colony and deprive Britain of a valuable base for striking at the colonies in revolt. Also, the French-Canadians would support the Americans because they supposedly were bitter about Britain's taking over of their land. Gen. Richard Montgomery captured Montreal. At Quebec, he was joined by the bedraggled army of Gen. Benedict Arnold. On the last day of 1775, in the assault of Quebec, Montgomery was killed and Arnold was wounded in one leg, and the whole campaign collapsed as the men retreated up the St. Lawrence River, reversing the way Montgomery had come. Besides, the French-Canadians, who had welcomed the Quebec Act, didn't really like the anti-Catholic invaders. In January 1776, the British set fire to Norfolk, Virginia, but in March, they were finally forced to evacuate Boston. In the South, the rebels won a victory against some 1,500 Loyalists at Moore's Creek Bridge, in North Carolina, and against an invading British fleet at Charleston Harbor. In October 1775, the British burned Falmouth (Portland), Maine. In the same month, colonists attacked Canada, hoping that they could add it as a 14th colony and remove it as a possible source for a British base. The attack failed when General Richard Montgomery was killed. In January 1776, the British burned the town of Norfolk, Virginia

The Deep Roots of Revolution

In a broad sense, the American Revolution began when the first colonists set foot on America. The war may have lasted for eight years, but a sense of independence had already begun to develop because London was over 3,000 miles away. Sailing across the Atlantic in a ship often took 6 to 8 weeks. Survivors felt physically and spiritually separated from Europe. Colonists in America, without influence from superiors, felt that they were fundamentally different from England, and more independent. Many began to think of themselves as Americans, and that they were on the cutting edge of the British empire. Two ideas had taken root in the minds of the American colonists by the mid 18th century (not mutually exclusive): 1) Republicanism: all citizens willingly work towards the common good, which trumps their private interests. The stability of society and the authority of government depended on society's capacity for selflessness, self-sufficiency, and courage. This school of thought opposed authoritarian institutions. 2) Radical Whigs: The Radical Whigs was a group of British political commentators who criticized the monarchy's corruption and encouraged citizens to be vigilant against attempts to take away liberty.

Braddock's Blundering and Its Aftermath

In the beginning, the British sent haughty 60 year-old Gen. Edward Braddock to lead a bunch of inexperienced soldiers with slow, heavy artillery. In a battle with the French, the British were ambushed routed by French using "Indian-tactics." In this battle, Washington reportedly had two horses shot from under him and four bullets go through his coat, but never through him. Afterwards, the frontier from Pennsylvania to North Carolina felt the Indian wrath, as scalping occurred everywhere. As the British tried to attack a bunch of strategic wilderness posts, defeat after defeat piled up. General Braddock set out in 1755 with 2,000 men to capture Fort Duquesne. His force was slaughtered by the much smaller French and Indian army. (Braddock's Blunder) Due to this loss of troops, the whole frontier from Pennsylvania to North Carolina was left open to attack. George Washington, with only 300 men, tried to defend the area. In 1756, the British launched a full-scale invasion of Canada.

Bunker Hill and Hessian Hirelings

In the first year, the war was one of consistency, as the colonists maintained their loyalty while still shooting at the king's men. In May 1775, a tiny American force called the Green Mountain Boys, led by Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold, surprised and captured the British garrisons at Forts Ticonderoga and Crown Point. The importance of this raid lay in the fact that they captured much-needed cannons and gunpowder. In June 1775, the colonials seized Bunker Hill (prior known as Breed's Hill). Instead of flanking them, the Redcoats launched a frontal attack, and the heavily entrenched colonial sharpshooters mowed them down until meager gunpowder supplies ran out and they were forced to retreat. After Bunker Hill, George III slammed the door for all hope of reconciliation and declared the colonies to be in open rebellion, a treasonous affair. The king also hired many German mercenaries, called Hessians, who, because they were lured by booty and not duty, had large numbers desert and remained in America to become respectful citizens. From April 1775 to July 1776, the colonists were mixed in their feelings for independence: some voiced a desire to mend differences, while others raised armies to fight the British. In May 1775, a small American force lead by Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold captured the British garrisons at Ticonderoga and Crown Point. In June 1775, the colonists captured Bunker Hill. The British took it back, but they had heavily casualties. In July 1775, the Second Continental Congress released the "Olive Branch Petition", which professed American loyalty to the king and begged to the king to stop future hostilities. The petition was rejected by the king. With the rejection, the Americans were forced to choose to fight to become independent or to submit to British rule and power. In August 1775, King George III proclaimed that the colonies were in rebellion. He then hired German Hessians to bring order to the colonies.

Pitt's Palms of Victory

In this hour of British trouble, William Pitt, the "Great Commoner," took the lead. In 1757, he became a foremost leader in the London government and later earned the title of "Organizer of Victory" Changes Pitt made... He soft-pedaled assaults on the French West Indies, assaults which sapped British strength, and concentrated on Quebec-Montreal (since they controlled the supply routes to New France). He replaced old, cautious officers with younger, daring officers In 1758, Louisbourg fell. This root of a fort began to wither the New France vine since supplies dwindled. 32 year-old James Wolfe, dashing and attentive to detail, commanded an army that boldly scaled the cliff walls of a part protecting Quebec, met French troops near the Plains of Abraham, and in a battle in which he and French commander Marquis de Montcalm both died, the French were defeated and the city of Quebec surrendered. The 1759 Battle of Quebec ranks as one of the most significant engagements in British and American history, and when Montreal fell in 1760, that was the last time French flags would fly on American soil. In the Peace Treaty at Paris in 1763... France was totally kicked out of North America. This meant the British got Canada and the land all the way to the Mississippi River. The French were allowed to retain several small but valuable sugar islands in the West Indies and two never-to-be-fortified islets in the Gulf of St. Lawrence for fishing stations. France's final blow came when they gave Louisiana to Spain to compensate for Spain's losses in the war. Great Britain took its place as the leading naval power in the world, and a great power in North America. In 1757, William Pitt became a prominent leader in the London government. He started to take control of British military leadership in North America. He attacked and captured Louisbourg in 1758. To lead the attack in the Battle of Quebec in 1759, Pitt chose James Wolfe. The French and British armies faced each other on the Plains of Abraham, with the British lead by Wolfe and the French lead by Marquis de Montcalm. Montreal fell in 1760. The Treaty of Paris (1763) ended the battle and threw the French off the continent of North America. Out of this conflict, the British became the dominant power in North America.

The Seditious Committees of Correspondence

King George III was 32 years old, a good person, but a poor ruler who surrounded himself with sycophants like Lord North. The Townshend Taxes didn't really do much, so they were repealed, except for the tea tax. The colonies, in order to spread propaganda and keep the rebellious moods, set up Committees of Correspondence which was a network of letter-writers and forerunner of the Continental Congress; the first committee was started by Samuel Adams. They were key to keeping the revolution spirit rolling. Lord North, the prime minister of Britain, was forced to persuade Parliament to repeal the Townshend revenue duties. Samuel Adams: master propagandist and engineer of rebellion; formed the first local committee of correspondence in Massachusetts in 1772 (Sons of Liberty). Committees of Correspondence were created by the American colonies in order to maintain communication with one another. They were organized in the decade before the Revolution when communication between the colonies became essential. In March of 1773, the Virginia House of Burgesses, the lower house of the Colony of Virginia, proposed that each colonial legislature appoint a standing committee for intercolonial correspondence. Within just a year, nearly all of the colonies had joined.

The Clash of Empires

King William's War and Queen Anne's War The English colonists fought the French coureurs de bois and their Indian allies. Neither side considered America important enough to waste real troops on. The French-inspired Indians ravaged Schenectady, New York, and Deerfield, Mass. The British did try to capture Quebec and Montreal, failed, but did temporarily have Port Royal. The peace deal in Utrecht in 1713 gave Acadia (renamed Nova Scotia), Newfoundland, and Hudson Bay to England, pinching the French settlements by the St. Lawrence. It also gave Britain limited trading rights with Spanish America. The War of Jenkins's Ear An English Captain named Jenkins had his ear cut off by a Spanish commander, who had essentially sneered at him to go home crying. This war was confined to the Caribbean Sea and Georgia. This war soon merged with the War of Austrian Succession and came to be called King George's War in America. France allied itself with Spain, but England's troops captured the reputed impregnable fortress of Cape Breton Island (Fort Louisbourg). However, peace terms of this war gave strategically located Louisbourg, which the New Englanders had captured, back to France, outraging the colonists, who feared the fort. The early battles between the Europeans for control over North America were mostly between British and French colonists. At this time, neither European power saw North America as a place worth devoting significant military resources. The British colonists referred to these conflicts as King William's War (1689-1697) and Queen Anne's War (1702-1713). The wars ended in 1713 with peace terms signed at Utrecht. France was terribly beaten in these conflicts, and Britain received French-populated Acadia and Newfoundland and the Hudson Bay. The British also won limited trading rights in Spanish America. The War of Jenkins's Ear started in 1739 between the British and Spanish. This small battle became a war and became known as King George's War in America. It ended in 1748 with a treaty that handed Louisbourg back to France (allied with Spain), enraging the victorious New Englanders.

The Clash of Federalists and Anti-federalists

Knowing that state legislatures would certainly veto the new Constitution, the Founding Fathers sent copies of it out to state conventions, where it could be debated and voted upon. The people could judge it themselves. The American people were shocked, because they had expected a patched up Articles of the Confederation and had received a whole new Constitution (the Convention had been very well concealed and kept secret). The Federalists, who favored the proposed stronger government, were against the anti-federalists, who were opposed to the Constitution. The Federalists were more respectable and generally embraced the cultured and propertied groups, and many were former Loyalists. These folks lived nearer the coast in the older areas. Anti-federalists truthfully cried that it was drawn up by aristocratic elements and was therefore anti-democratic. The Anti-federalists were mostly the poor farmers, the illiterate, and states' rights devotees. It was basically the poorer classes who lived westward toward the frontier. They decried the dropping of annual elections of congressional representatives and the erecting of what would become Washington D.C., and the creation of a standing army. Anti-federalists opposed the stronger federal government because they feared it would take away the power of the common man. They were led by Samuel Adams, Patrick Henry, and Richard Henry Lee. The anti-federalists mostly consisted of the poorest class. Federalists were led by George Washington and Benjamin Franklin. Most of the Federalists lived in the settled areas along the seaboard. Overall, they were wealthier, more educated, and better organized than the anti-federalists. They also controlled the press.

France Finds a Foothold in Canada

Like England and Holland, France was a latecomer in the race for colonies. It was convulsed in the 1500s by foreign wars and domestic strife In 1598, the Edict of Nantes was issued, allowing limited toleration to the French Huguenots. When King Louis XIV became king, he took an interest in overseas colonies. In 1608, France established Quebec, overlooking the St. Lawrence River. Samuel de Champlain, an intrepid soldier and explorer, became known as the "Father of New France." He entered into friendly relations with the neighboring Huron Indians and helped them defeat the Iroquois. The Iroquois, however, did hamper French efforts into the Ohio Valley later. Unlike English colonists, French colonists didn't immigrate to North America by hordes. The peasants were too poor, and the Huguenots weren't allowed to leave. In 1598, the Edict of Nantes was issued by the crown of France. It granted limited religious freedom to French Protestants, and stopped religious wars between the Protestants and Catholics. In 1608, France established Quebec. The leading figure was Samuel de Champlain, an intrepid soldier and explorer whose energy and leadership earned him the title "Father of New France". The government of New France (Canada) was under direct control of the king. The people did not elect any representative assemblies.

Burgoyne's Blundering Invasion

London officials adopted a complicated scheme for capturing the vital Hudson River valley in 1777, which, if successful, would sever New England from the rest of the colonies. The plan was such that... General Burgoyne would push down the Lake Champlain route from Canada. General Howe's troops in New York, if needed, could advance up the Hudson and meet Burgoyne in Albany. A third and much smaller British force commanded by Col. Barry St. Ledger would come in from the west by way of Lake Ontario and the Mohawk Valley. However, Benedict Arnold, after failure at Quebec, retreated slowly along the St. Lawrence back to Lake Champlain, where the British would have to win control (of the lake) before proceeding. The Brits stopped to build a huge force, while Arnold assembled a tattered flotilla from whatever boats he could find. His "navy" was destroyed, but he had gained valuable time, because winter set in and the British settled in Canada, thus, they would have to begin anew the next spring. Had Arnold not contributed his daring and skill, the Brits most likely would have recaptured Ticonderoga and Burgoyne could have started from there and succeeded in his venture. Burgoyne began his mission with 7,000 troops and a heavy baggage train consisting of a great number of the officers' wives. Meanwhile, sneaky rebels, sensing the kill, were gathering along his flanks. General Howe, at a time when he should be starting up the Hudson, deliberately embarked for an attack on Philadelphia. He wanted to force an encounter with Washington and leave the path wide open for Burgoyne's thrust. He thought he had enough time to help Burgoyne if needed. Washington transferred his troops to Philadelphia, but was defeated at Brandywine Creek and Germantown. Then, the fun-loving Howe settled down in Philadelphia, leaving Burgoyne "to the dogs." Ben Franklin, in Paris, joked that Howe hadn't captured Philadelphia, but that "Philadelphia had captured Howe." Washington finally retired for the winter at Valley Forge, where his troops froze in the cold, but a recently arrived Prussian drillmaster, Baron von Steuben, whipped the cold troops into shape. Burgoyne's doomed troops were bogged down, and the rebels swarmed in with a series of sharp engagements, pushing St. Legers force back at Oriskany while Burgoyne, unable to advance or retreat, surrendered his entire force at the Battle of Saratoga, on October 17, 1777. This was perhaps one of the most decisive battles in British and American history. The importance of Saratoga lay in the fact that afterwards, France sensed America might actually win and came out to officially help America London officials developed a plan for capturing the vital Hudson River valley in 1777. It would sever New England from the rest of the states and paralyze the American cause. The main invading force, lead by General Burgoyne, would push down towards Lake Champlain from Canada. General Howe's troops in New York, if needed, could advance up the Hudson River to meet Burgoyne near Albany. The third force was commanded by colonel Barry St. Leger, who would come in from the west by way of Lake Ontario and the Mohawk Valley. General Burgoyne was forced to surrender his entire command at Saratoga on October 17, 1777 to American general Horatio Gates (Burgoyne's Blunder). This win made it possible for the Americans to recieve much-needed aid from France. (Turning point in war.)

Makers of America: The French

Louis XIV envisioned a French empire in North America, but defeats in 1713 and 1763 snuffed that out. The first French to leave Canada were the Acadians. The British who had won that area had demanded that all residents either swear allegiance to Britain or leave. In 1755, they were forcefully expelled from the region. The Acadians fled far south to the French colony of Louisiana, where they settled among sleepy bayous, planted sugar cane and sweet potatoes, and practiced Roman Catholicism. They also spoke a French dialect that came to be called Cajun. Cajuns married the Spanish, French, and Germans. They were largely isolated in large families until the 1930s, when a bridge-building spree engineered by Governor Huey Long, broke the isolation of these bayou communities. In 1763, a second group of French settlers in Quebec began to leave, heading toward New England because poor harvests led to lack of food in Quebec because... The people hoped to return to Canada someday. They notably preserved their Roman Catholicism and their language. Yet today, almost all Cajuns and New England French-Canadians speak English. Today, Quebec is the only sign of French existence that once ruled. French culture is strong there in the form of road signs, classrooms, courts, and markets, eloquently testifying to the continued vitality of French culture in North America.

Makers of America: The Loyalists

Loyalists were conservative, well-educated, and thought that a complete break with Britain would invite anarchy. They felt that America couldn't win against the most powerful nation in the world. Many Britons had settled in America after the Seven Years' War, and they had reason to support their home country. Thousands of African-Americans joined the British ranks for hope of freedom from bondage. Many Black Loyalists won their freedom from Britain. Others suffered betrayal, such as when Cornwallis abandoned over 4,000 former slaves in Virginia and when many Black Loyalists boarded ships expecting to embark for freedom but instead found themselves sold back into slavery. Some Black exiles settled in Britain, but weren't really easily accepted. Most Loyalists remained in America, where they faced special burdens and struggled to re-establish themselves in a society that viewed them as traitors. Hugh Gaine, though, succeeded in building back his name. He reopened his business and even won contracts from the new government. He also published the new national army regulations authored by Baron von Steuben. When New York ratified the Constitution in 1788, Gaine rode the float at the head of the city's celebration parade. He had, like many other former Loyalists, become an American.

Peace at Paris

Many Brits were weary of the war, since they had suffered heavily in India and the West Indies, the island of Minorca in the Mediterranean which had fallen, and the Rock of Gibraltar was tottering. Ben Franklin, John Adams, and John Jay met in Paris for a peace deal. Jay suspected that France would try to keep the U.S. cooped up east of the Alleghenies and keep America weak. Instead, Jay, thinking that France would betray American ambition to satisfy those of Spain, secretly made separate overtures to London (against instructions from Congress) and came to terms quickly with the British, who were eager to entice one of their enemies from the alliance. The Treaty of Paris of 1783 Britain formally recognized U.S. independence and granted generous boundaries, stretching majestically to the Mississippi River to the west, the Great Lakes on the north, and to Spanish Florida on the South. The Yankees also retained a share in the priceless fisheries of Newfoundland. Americans couldn't persecute Loyalists, though, and Congress could only recommend legislature that would return or pay for confiscated Loyalist land. In 1782, a Whig ministry (favorable to the Americans) replaced the Tory regime of Lord North. Conditions of the Treaty of Paris of 1783: - British formally recognized the independence of the United States. - Florida is given to Spain. - The independent American now consisted of territory stretching to the Mississippi on the west, to the Great Lakes on the north, and to Spanish Florida on the south. - Yankees were to retain a share in the fisheries of Newfoundland. - The Loyalists were to no longer be prosecuted. - Congress was to recommend to the state legislatures that confiscated Loyalist property be restored. The states vowed to put no lawful obstacles in the way of Loyalist property collection. Ben Franklin, John Adams, and John Jay negotiated the peace terms with Britain.

Jefferson's "Explanation" of Independence

Members of the Philadelphia 2nd Continental Congress, instructed by their colonies, gradually moved toward a clean break with Britain. On June 7, 1776, fiery Richard Henry Lee urged for complete independence, an idea that was finally adopted on July 2, 1776. To write such a statement, Congress appointed Thomas Jefferson, already renown as a great writer, to concoct a Declaration of Independence. He did so eloquently, coming up with a list of grievances against King George III and persuasively explaining why the colonies had the right to revolt. His "explanation" of independence also upheld the "natural rights" of humankind (life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness). When Congress approved it on July 2nd, John Adams proclaimed that date to be celebrated from then on with fireworks, but because of editing and final approval, it was not completely approved until July 4th, 1776. At the Second Continental Congress, Richard Henry Lee proposed that the colonies declare their independence. Thomas Jefferson was appointed to draft up the Declaration of Independence. The Declaration of Independence was formally approved by Congress on July 4, 1776. The "declaration" was more of an "explanation" of why the colonists sought their independence.

The Merits and Menace of Mercantilism

Merits of mercantilism: The Navigation Laws were hated, but until 1763, they were not really enforced much, resulting in widespread smuggling. This lack of enforcement is called "salutary neglect." In fact, John Hancock amassed a fortune through smuggling. Tobacco planters, though they couldn't ship it to anywhere except Britain, still had a monopoly within the British market. Americans had unusual opportunities for self-government. Americans also had the mightiest army in the world in Britain, and didn't have to pay for it. After independence, the U.S. had to pay for a tiny army and navy. Basically, the Americans had it made: even repressive laws weren't enforced much, and the average American benefited much more than the average Englishman. The mistakes that occurred didn't occur out of malice, at least until the revolution. Also, France and Spain embraced mercantilism, and enforced it heavily. Menace of mercantilism: After Britain began to enforce mercantilism in 1763, the fuse for the American Revolution was lit. Disadvantages of mercantilism included: Americans couldn't buy, sell, ship, or manufacture under their most favorable conditions. The South, which produced crops that weren't grown in England, was preferred over the North. Virginia, which grew just tobacco, was at the mercy of the British buyers, who often paid very poorly and were responsible for putting many planters into debt. Many colonists felt that Britain was just milking her colonies for all they were worth. Theodore Roosevelt later said, "Revolution broke out because England failed to recognize an emerging nation when it saw one." British mercantile laws were not strictly enforced in the colonies and these laws benefited the colonies in some ways. However, many colonists did not like the mercantile laws.

New France Fans Out

New France's (Canada) one valuable resource was the beaver. Beaver hunters were known as the coureurs de bois (runners of the woods) and littered the land with place names, including Baton Rouge (red stick), Terre Haute (high land), Des Moines (some monks) and Grand Teton (big breasts). The French voyageurs also recruited Indians to hunt for beaver as well, but Indians were decimated by the white man's diseases, and the beaver population was heavily extinguished. French Catholic missionaries zealously tried to convert Indians. To thwart English settlers from pushing into the Ohio Valley, Antoine Cadillac founded Detroit ("city of straits") in 1701. Louisiana was founded, in 1682, by Robert de LaSalle, to halt Spanish expansion into the area near the Gulf of Mexico. Three years later, he tried to fulfill his dreams by returning, but instead landed in Spanish Texas and was murdered by his mutinous men in 1687. The fertile Illinois country, where the French established forts and trading posts at Kaskaskia, Cahokia, and Vincennes, became the garden of France's North American empire. New France contained one valuable resource - beaver. French Catholic missionaries, notably the Jesuits, tried to convert the Indians to Christianity and to save them from the fur trappers. Antoine Cadillac- founded Detroit in 1701 to thwart English settlers from pushing into the Ohio Valley. Robert de La Salle- explored the Mississippi and Gulf basin, naming it Louisiana. In order to block the Spanish at the Gulf of Mexico, the French placed several fortifications in Mississippi and Louisiana. The French founded New Orleans in 1718. Illinois became France's garden empire of North America because much grain was produced there.

War's Fateful Aftermath

Now that the French had been beaten, the colonists could now roam freely, and were less dependent upon Great Britain. The French consoled themselves with the thought that if they could lose such a great empire, maybe the British would one day lose theirs too. Spain was eliminated from Florida, and the Indians could no longer play the European powers against each other, since it was only Great Britain in control now. In 1763, Ottawa Chief Pontiac led a few French-allied tribes in a brief but bloody campaign through the Ohio Valley, but the whites quickly and cruelly retaliated after being caught off guard. One commander ordered blankets infected with smallpox to be distributed. The violence convinced whites to station troops along the frontier. Now, land-hungry Americans could now settle west of the Appalachians, but in 1763, Parliament issued its Proclamation of 1763, prohibiting any settlement in the area beyond the Appalachians. Actually, this document was meant to work out the Indian problem by drawing the "out-of-bounds" line. But, colonists saw it as another form of oppression from a far away country. Americans asked, "Didn't we just fight a war to win that land?" In 1765, an estimated one thousand wagons rolled through the town of Salisbury, North Carolina, on their way "up west" in defiance of the Proclamation. The British, proud and haughty, were in no way to accept this blatant disobedience by the lowly Americans, and the stage was set for the Revolutionary War. In 1763, Ottawa chief, Pontiac, led several tribes, aided by a handful of French traders who remained in the region, in a violent campaign to drive the British out of the Ohio country. His warriors captured Detroit in the spring of that year and overran all but 3 British outposts west of the Appalachians. The British countered these attacks and eventually defeated the Indians. London government issued the Proclamation of 1763. It prohibited settlement in the area beyond the Appalachians. (The Appalachian land was acquired after the British beat the Indians). It was made to prevent another bloody eruption between the settlers and Indians. Many colonists disregarded it.

Mercantilism and Colonial Grievances

Of the 13 original colonies, only Georgia was formally planted by the British government. The rest were started by companies, religious groups, land speculators, etc... The British embraced a theory that justified their control of the colonies called mercantilism: A country's economic wealth could be measured by the amount of gold or silver in its treasury. To amass gold and silver, a country had to export more than it imported (it had to obtain a favorable balance of trade). Countries with colonies were at an advantage, because the colonies could supply the mother country with raw materials, wealth, supplies, a market for selling manufactured goods etc... For America, that meant giving Britain all the ships, ships' stores, sailors, and trade that they needed and wanted. Also, they had to grow tobacco and sugar for England that Brits would otherwise have to buy from other countries. England's policy of mercantilism severely handcuffed American trade. The Navigation Laws were the most infamous of the laws to enforce mercantilism. The first of these was enacted in 1650, and was aimed at rival Dutch shippers who were elbowing their way into the American shipping. The Navigation Laws restricted commerce from the colonies to England (and back) to only English ships, and none other. Other laws stated that European goods consigned to America had to land first in England, where custom duties could be collected. Also, some products, "enumerated goods," could only be shipped to England. Settlers were even restricted in what they could manufacture at home; they couldn't make woolen cloth and beaver hats to export (though, they could make them for themselves). Americans had no currency, but they were constantly buying things from Britain, so that gold and silver was constantly draining out of America, forcing some to even trade and barter. Eventually, the colonists were forced to print paper money, which depreciated. Colonial laws could be voided by the Privy Council, though this privilege was used sparingly (469 times out of 8,563 laws). Still, colonists were infuriated by its use. British mercantilism in the colonies was a system in which the British expected the colonies to export raw materials to Britain and import manufactured goods exclusively from Britain. Georgia was the only colony to be formally created by Britain. The British viewed the American colonists as tenants: the colonists should exclusively support Britain (via supply of raw materials, purchase of British exports, etc). The Navigation Law of 1650 stated that all goods flowing to and from the colonies could only be transported in British vessels. It aimed to hurt rival Dutch shippers.

Paine and the Idea of "Republicanism"

Paine argued his idea that there should be a "republic" where representative senators, governors, and judges should have their power from the consent of the people. He laced his ideas with Biblical imagery, familiar to common folk. His ideas about rejecting monarchy and empire and embrace an independent republic fell on receptive ears in America, though it should be noted that these ideas already existed. The New Englanders already practiced this type of government in their town meetings. Some patriots, though, favored a republic ruled by a "natural aristocracy." Thomas Paine called for the creation of a new kind of political society, specifically a republic, where power flowed from the people themselves. This was outlined in a pamphlet called the Common Sense.

The Horrid Specter of Anarchy

States were refusing to pay taxes, and national debt was mounting as foreign credibility was slipping. Boundary disputes erupted into small battles while states taxed goods from other states. Shays' Rebellion, which flared up in western Massachusetts in 1786. Shays' was disgruntled over getting farmland mortgages. Notably, the inability to get land is the same motivation for rebellion as Bacon's Rebellion back in 1676 in Virginia. And, the desire for land was also the motivator of the Paxton Boys in Pennsylvania in 1764. Daniel Shays was convicted, but later pardoned. The importance of Shays' Rebellion‡ The fear of such violence lived on and paranoia motivated folks to desire a stronger federal government. People were beginning to doubt republicanism and this Articles of the Confederation. However, many supporters believed that the Articles merely needed to be strengthened. Things began to look brighter, though, as prosperity was beginning to emerge. Congress was beginning to control commerce, and overseas shipping was regaining its place in the world. Shay's Rebellion: occurred in western Massachusetts in 1786; impoverished back-country farmers, who were losing their farms through mortgage foreclosures and tax delinquencies, attempted to enforce their demands of cheap paper money, lighter taxes, and a suspension of property takeovers; led by Captain Daniel Shays. The uprising was crushed but it led to changes in laws.

Patriots in Philadelphia

The 55 delegates were all well-off and mostly young, and they hoped to preserve the union, protect the American democracy from abroad and preserve it at home, and to curb the unrestrained democracy rampant in various states (like rebellions, etc...). The delegates hoped to save the revolutionary idealism and make it into a strong political structure.

The Pursuit of Equality

The American Revolution was more of an accelerated evolution than a revolution. However, the exodus of some 80,000 Loyalists left a great lack of conservatives. This weakening of the aristocratic "upper crust" let Patriot elites emerge. The fight for separation of church and state resulted in notable gains. The Congregational church continued to be legally established (tax supported) by some New England states, but the Anglican Church was humbled and reformed as the Protestant Episcopal Church. Slavery was a large, problematic issue, as the Continental Congress of 1774 had called for the abolition of slavery, and in 1775, the Philadelphia Quakers founded the world's first antislavery society. This new spirit that "all men are created equal" even inspired a few slave owners to free their slaves. Another issue was women. They still were unequal to men, even though some had served (disguised as men) in the Revolutionary War. There were some achievements for women such as New Jersey's 1776 constitution which allowed women to vote (for a time). Mothers devoted to their families were developed as an idea of "republican motherhood" and elevated women to higher statuses as keepers of the nation's conscience. Women raised the children and thereby held the future of the republic in their hands. The Continental Army officers formed an exclusive hereditary order called the Society of the Cincinnati. Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom: created in 1786 by Thomas Jefferson and his co-reformers; stated that religion should not be imposed on anybody and that each person decided his/her own faith. The Philadelphia Quakers founded the first anti-slavery society in 1775. The 1st Continental Congress called for the complete abolition of the slave trade in 1774. Several northern states went further and either completely abolished slavery or provided the gradual emancipation of slaves. No states south of Pennsylvania abolished slavery. Civic Virtue: the idea that democracy depended on the unselfish commitment of each citizen to the public good. Republican Motherhood: the idea that the mother was selflessly devoted to her family; this was described as the model of a proper republican mother.

A Thin Line of Heroes

The American army was desperately in need of clothing, wool, wagons to ship food, and other supplies. Many soldiers had also only received rudimentary training. German Baron von Steuben, who spoke no English, whipped the soldiers into shape. African Americans also fought and died in service, though in the beginning, many colonies barred them from service. By war's end, more than 5,000 blacks had enlisted in the American armed forces. African-Americans also served on the British side. In November 1775, Lord Dunmore, royal governor of Virginia, issued a proclamation declaring freedom for any enslaved black in Virginia who joined the British Army. By war's end, at least 1,400 Blacks were evacuated to Nova Scotia, Jamaica, and England. Many people also sold items to the British, because they paid in gold. Many people just didn't care about the revolution, and therefore, raising a large number of troops was difficult, if not impossible. Only because a select few threw themselves into the cause with passion, did the Americans win. Food and military supplies were limited in the colonies. At Valley Forge, Pennsylvania, American men went without food for 3 days in the winter of 1777-1778. Baron von Steuben: German who helped train the America fighters to fight the British. Lord Dunmore: royal (British) governor of Virginia. In 1775, he issued a proclamation promising freedom for any enslaved black in Virginia who joined the British army. "Lord Dunmore's Ethiopian Regiment"

Constitution Making in the States

The Continental Congress of 1776 called upon colonies to draft new constitutions (thus began the formation of the Articles of the Confederation). Massachusetts contributed one innovation when it called a special convention to draft its constitution and made it so that the constitution could only be changed through another specially called constitutional convention. Many states had written documents that represented a fundamental law. Many had a bill of rights and also required annual election of legislators. All of them deliberately created weak executive and judicial branches since they distrusted power due to Britain's abuse of it. In most states, the legislative branch was given sweeping powers, though some people, like Thomas Jefferson, warned that "173 despots [in legislature] would surely be as oppressive as one." Many state capitals followed the migration of the people and moved westward, as in New Hampshire, New York, Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia. In 1776, the 2nd Continental Congress called the colonies to draft new constitutions. Massachusetts called a special convention to draft its constitution and then submitted the final draft to the people. As written documents, the state constitutions were intended to represent a fundamental law, superior to the short-lived impulses of ordinary legislation. In the Revolutionary era, the capitals of New Hampshire, New York, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia were all moved westward.

Bloodshed

The First Continental Congress In Philadelphia, from September 5th to October 26th, 1774, the First Continental Congress met to discuss problems. While not wanting independence yet, it did come up with a list of grievances, which were ignored in Parliament. 12 of the 13 colonies met, only Georgia didn't have a representative there. Also, they came up with a Declaration of Rights. They agreed to meet again in 1775 (the next year) if nothing happened. The "Shot Heard 'Round the World" In April 1775, the British commander in Boston sent a detachment of troops to nearby Lexington and Concord to seize supplies and to capture Sam Adams and John Hancock. Minutemen, after having eight of their own killed at Lexington, fought back at Concord, pushing the Redcoats back, shooting them from behind rocks and trees, Indian style. In 1774, the First Continental Congress met in Philadelphia to respond to colonial grievances over the Intolerable Acts. 12 of the 13 colonies (excluding Georgia) sent 55 men to the convention. (The First Continental Congress was not a legislative body; it was a consultative body. It was a convention rather than a congress.) After 7 weeks of deliberation, the 1st Continental Congress created several papers. The papers included a Declaration of Rights and appeals to other British-American colonies, to the king, and to the British people. The creation of The Association was the most important outcome of the Congress. It called for a complete boycott of British goods: nonimportation, nonexportation, and nonconsumption. In April 1775, the British commander in Boston sent a detachment of troops to Lexington and Concord. Their plan was to seize stocks of colonial gunpowder and to capture the "rebel" ringleaders, Samuel Adams and John Hancock. At Lexington, 8 Americans were shot and killed. This incident was labelled as the "Lexington Massacre." When the British went to Concord, they were met with American resistance and had over 300 casualties and 70 deaths. Because of this, the British realized that they had a war, rather than a rebellion, on their hands.

Landmarks in Land Laws

The Land Ordinance of 1785 answered the question, "How will the new lands in the Ohio Valley be divided up?" It provided the acreage of the Old Northwest should be sold and that the proceeds be used to pay off the national debt. This vast area would be surveyed before settlement and then divided into townships (six miles square), which would then be divided into 36 square sections (1 mile square) with one set aside for public schools (section #16). The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 answered the question, "How will new states be made once people move out there?" It made admission into the union a two stage affair: There would be two evolutionary territorial stages, during which the area would be subordinate to the federal government. When a territory had 60,000 inhabitants, they wrote a state constitution and sent it to Congress for approval. If approved, it's a new state. It worked very well to solve a problem that had plagued many other nations. Land Ordinance of 1785: stated that the acreage of the Old Northwest should be sold and the proceeds should be used to help pay off the national debt. Northwest Ordinance of 1787: a uniform national land policy; created the Northwest Territories and gave the land to the government, the land could then be purchased by individuals; when a territory had 60,000 people, it might be admitted by Congress as a state, with all the privileges of the 13 other states.

George Washington Inaugurates War with France

The Ohio Valley became a battleground among the Spanish, British, and French. It was lush, fertile, and very good land. In 1754, the governor of Virginia sent 21 year-old George Washington to the Ohio country as a lieutenant colonel in command of about 150 Virginia minutemen. Encountering some Frenchmen in the forest about 40 miles from Fort Duquesne, the troops opened fire, killing the French leader. Later, the French returned and surrounded Washington's hastily constructed Fort Necessity, fought "Indian style" (hiding and guerilla fighting), and after a 10-hour siege, made him surrender. He was permitted to march his men away with the full honors of war. In 1754, George Washington was sent to the Ohio Valley to secure land that had been purchased by some Virginians. His 150 Virginian militia killed the French leader, causing French reinforcements to come. The Virginians were forced to surrender on July 4, 1754. The increase in conflict caused the British in Nova Scotia to worry that the French in Acadia would attack them. So in 1755, the British in Nova Scotia attacked and defeated the French Acadians and scattered them as far as Louisiana.

Patriots and Loyalists

The War of Independence was a war within a war, as not all colonials were united. There were Patriots, who supported rebellion and were called "Whigs." There were Loyalists, who supported the king and who often went to battle against fellow Americans. The Loyalists were also called "Tories." There were Moderates in the middle and those who didn't care either way. These people were constantly being asked to join one side or another. During the war, the British proved that they could only control Tory areas, because when Redcoats packed up and left other areas, the rebels would regain control. Typical Loyalist (Tory) Loyalists were generally conservatives, but the war divided families. For example, Benjamin Franklin was against his illegitimate son, William, the last royal governor of New Jersey. Loyalists were most numerous where the Anglican Church was strongest (the South). Loyalists were less numerous in New England, where Presbyterianism and Congregationalism flourished. Loyalists were more numerous in the aristocratic areas such as Charleston, SC. Typical Patriot The Patriots were generally the younger generation, like Samuel Adams and Patrick Henry. The Patriot militias constantly harassed small British detachments. Patriots typically didn't belong to the Anglican Church (Church of England) but were Congregational, Presbyterian, Baptist, or Methodist. There were also those known as "profiteers" who sold to the highest bidder, selling to the British and ignoring starving, freezing soldiers (i.e. George Washington at Valley Forge). During the War of Independence, the Loyalists were called "Tories" and the Patriots were called "Whigs." The American Revolution was a minority movement. Most colonists were apathetic or neutral. Patriot militias did a good job of winning the "hearts and minds" of the colonists. The Loyalists made up just 16% of the American population. Many educated and wealthy people remained loyal to England. Loyalists were most numerous where the Anglican church was strongest. The Loyalists were well entrenched in New York City, Charleston, Quaker Pennsylvania, and New Jersey. They were least numerous in New England. The Patriots were numerous where Presbyterianism and Congregationalism flourished - mostly in New England.

Restless Colonists

The colonists, having experienced war firsthand and come out victors, were very confident. However, the myth of British invincibility had been shattered. Ominously, friction developed between the British officers and the colonial "boors." I.e., the British refused to recognize any American officers above the rank of captain. However, the hardworking Americans believed that they were equals with the Redcoats, and trouble began to brew. Brits were concerned about American secret trade with enemy traders during the war; in fact, in the last year of the war, the British forbade the export of all supplies from New England to the middle colonies. Also, many American colonials refused to help fight the French until Pitt offered to reimburse them. During the French and Indian War, though, Americans from different parts of the colonies found, surprisingly to them, that they had a lot in common (language, tradition, ideals) and barriers of disunity began to melt. Intercolonial disunity had been caused by enormous distances; geographical barriers; conflicting religions, from Catholics to Quakers; varied nationalities, from German to Irish; differing types of colonial governments; many boundary disputes; and the resentment of the crude back-country settlers against the aristocrats.

Safeguards for Conservatism

The delegates at the Convention all believed in a system with checks and balances, and the more conservative people deliberately erected safeguards against excesses of mobs. Such as... Federal chief justices were appointed for life, thus creating stability conservatives liked. The electoral college created a buffer between the people and the presidency. Senators were elected by state legislators, not by the people. So, the people voted for 1/2 of 1/3 of the government (only for representatives in the House). However, the people still had power, and government was based on the people. By the end of the Convention, on Sept. 17, 1787, only 42 of the original 55 were still there to sign the Constitution. The members of the Constitutional Convention agreed economically (they demanded sound money and the protection of private property), and they agreed politically (they favored a stronger government with 3 branches and with checks and balances system).

Hammering Out a Bundle of Compromises

The delegates quickly decided to totally scrap the Articles and create a new Constitution. Virginia's large state plan called for Congressional representation based on state population, while New Jersey's small state plan called for equal representation from all states (in terms of numbers, each state got the same number of representatives, two.) Afterwards, the "Great Compromise" was worked out so that Congress would have two houses, the House of Representatives, where representation was based on population, and the Senate, where each state got two representatives All tax bills would start in the House. Also, there would be a strong, independent executive branch with a president who would be military commander-in-chief and who could veto legislation. Another compromise was the election of the president through the Electoral College, rather than by the people directly. The people were viewed as too ignorant to vote. Also, slaves would count as 3/5 of a person in census counts for representation. Also, the Constitution enabled a state to shut off slave importation if it wanted, after 1807. Some of the delegates decided they would scrap the old Articles of Confederation, contradicting instructions from Congress to revise it. The "large-state plan" was proposed by Virginia and was the first suggested framework of the Constitution. It said that a state's representation in Congress should be based upon the state's population. New Jersey presented the "small-state plan." It centered on equal representation in Congress without regards to a state's size or population. A "Great Compromise" was eventually agreed upon. It called for representation by population in the House of Representatives, and equal representation in the Senate. Each state would have 2 senators. The new Constitution also called for a President. Because of arguments over if the slaves would count towards the general population of the state, the "three-fifths compromise" was created. The new Constitution also called for the end of the slave trade by the end of 1807. All new state constitutions except Georgia's forbade overseas slave trade. The Constitution was meant to be a broad document. It grew out of common law, in which it is unnecessary to be specific about every possible detail. Rhode Island was not present at the Constitutional Convention.

Global War and Colonial Disunity

The fourth of these wars between empires started in America, unlike the first three. The French and Indian War (AKA Seven Years' War) began with Washington's battle with the French. It was England and Prussia vs. France, Spain, Austria, and Russia. In Germany (Prussia), Fredrick the Great won his title of "Great" by repelling French, Austrian, and Russian armies, even though he was badly outnumbered. Many Americans sought for the American colonies to unite, for strength lay in numbers. In 1754, 7 of the 13 colonies met for an inter-colonial congress held in Albany, New York, known simply as the Albany Congress. A month before the congress, Ben Franklin had published his famous "Join or Die" cartoon featuring a snake in pieces, symbolizing the colonies. Franklin helped unite the colonists in Albany, but the Albany plan failed because the states were reluctant to give up their sovereignty or power. Still, it was a first step toward unity. The French and Indian War started in 1754. It was the American theater of the Seven Years' War. This war was fought in America, Europe, the West Indies, the Philippines, Africa, and on the ocean. In Europe, the principal adversaries were Britain and Prussia on one side. France, Spain, Austria, and Russia were on the other side. The French wasted so many troops in Europe that they were unable to put enough forces into America. The Albany Congress met in 1754. Only 7 of 13 colony delegates showed up. It attempted to unite all of the colonies, but the plan was hated by individual colonists and the London regime.

The Articles of the Confederation: America's First Constitution

The main thing to know regarding the Articles is that they set up a very weak government. This was not by accident, but by plan. The reason a weak government was desired was simply to avoid a strong national government that would take away unalienable rights or abuse their power (i.e. England). The Articles had no executive branch (hence, no single leader), a weak Congress in which each state had only one vote, it required 2/3 majority on any subject of importance, and a fully unanimous vote for amendments. Also, Congress was pitifully weak, and could not regulate commerce and could not enforce tax collection. States printed their own, worthless paper money. States competed with one another for foreign trade. The federal government was helpless. Congress could only call up soldiers from the states, which weren't going to help each other. Example: in 1783, a group of Pennsylvanian soldiers harassed the government in Philadelphia, demanding back pay. When it pleaded for help from the state, and didn't receive any, it had to shamefully move to Princeton College in New Jersey. However, the government was a model of what a loose confederation should be, and was a significant stepping-stone towards the establishment of the U.S. Constitution. Still, many thought the states wielded an alarmingly great of power. The 13 colonies were joined together for joint action in dealing with common problems such as foreign affairs. Congress had 2 major handicaps: 1) It had no power to regulate commerce, and this loophole left the states free to establish conflictingly laws regarding tariffs and navigation. 2) Congress couldn't enforce its tax collection program. The states were NOT required to pay the government taxes, they were merely asked. The Articles of Confederation had many faults, but it was a stepping stone towards the Constitution.

A Conservative Triumph

The minority had triumphed again, and the transition had been peaceful. Only about 1/4 of the adult white males in the country (mainly those with land) had voted for the ratifying delegates. Conservationism was victorious, as the safeguards had been erected against mob-rule excesses. Revolutionaries against Britain had been upended by revolutionaries against the Articles. It was a type of counterrevolution. Federalists believed that every branch of government effectively represented the people, unlike Anti-federalists who believed that only the legislative branch did so. In the U.S., conservatives and radicals alike have championed the heritage of democratic revolution. The architects of the Constitution believed that every branch (executive, judiciary, and legislative) effectively represented the people.

Creating a Confederation

The new states chose a confederation as their first government—a loose union of states where a federal and state level exist, yet the state level retains the most sovereignty to "do their own thing." For example, during the war, states had created their own individual currencies and tax barriers. The Articles of the Confederation was finished in 1777, but it was finally completely ratified by the last state, Maryland, on March 1, 1781. A major dispute was that states like New York and Virginia had huge tracts of land west of the Appalachians that they could sell off to pay off their debts while other states could not do so. As a compromise, these lands were ceded to the federal government, which pledged to dispense them for the common good of the union (states would be made). The Northwest Ordinance later confirmed this. Shortly before declaring independence in 1776, the 2nd Continental Congress appointed a committee to draft a written constitution for the new nation. The finished product was the Articles of Confederation. It was adopted by Congress in 1777 and it convinced France that America had a genuine government. The Articles of Confederation wasn't ratified by all 13 colonies until 1781.

The Four Laggard States

Virginia, knowing that it could not be an independent state (the Constitution was about to be ratified by the 9th state, New Hampshire, anyway), finally ratified it by a vote of 89 to 79. New York was swayed by The Federalist Papers, written by John Jay, James Madison, and Alexander Hamilton, and finally yielded after realizing that it couldn't prosper apart from the union. North Carolina and Rhode Island finally ratified it after intense pressure from the government. Virginia and New York eventually ratified the Constitution before it was put into effect. Rhode Island and North Carolina were the last states to ratify it, and they did so only after the new government had been in operation for a few months. These 4 states did not want to ratify the Constitution, but they could not safely exist as the only states "outside of the fold."

A Shaky Start Toward Union

While the U.S. had to create a new government, the people were far from united. In 1786, after the war, Britain flooded America with cheap goods, greatly hurting American industries. However, the states all did share similar constitutions, had a rich political inheritance form Britain, and America was blessed with men like Washington, Madison, Jefferson, Hamilton, and John Adams, great political leaders of high order. Shortly before declaring independence in 1776, the 2nd Continental Congress appointed a committee to draft a written constitution for the new nation. The finished product was the Articles of Confederation. It was adopted by Congress in 1777 and it convinced France that America had a genuine government. The Articles of Confederation wasn't ratified by all 13 colonies until 1781.

Imperial Strength and Weaknesses

With war broken open, Britain had the heavy advantage: (1) 7.5 million people to America's 2 million, (2) superior naval power, (3) great wealth. Some 30,000 Hessians (German mercenaries) were also hired by George III, in addition to a professional army of about 50,000 men, plus about 50,000 American loyalists and many Native Americans. However, Britain still had Ireland (which required troops) and France was just waiting to stab Britain in the back; plus, there was no William Pitt. Many Brits had no desire to kill their American cousins, as shown by William Pitt's withdrawal of his son from the army. English Whigs at first supported America, as opposed to Lord North's Tory Whigs, and they felt that if George III won, then his rule of England might become tyrannical. Britain's generals were second-rate, and its men were brutally treated. Provisions were often scarce, plus Britain was fighting a war some 3,000 miles away from home. America was also expansive, and there was no single capital to capture and therefore cripple the country. The population of Britain was over 3 times as large as America. Britain also had a much greater economic wealth and naval power. Unfortunately for the British, though, British troops were committed to fighting the rebellion in Ireland. Troops were also needed in case France decided to attack Britain. (France was bitter from its recent defeat.) Britain was therefore forced to divert much of its military power and concentration away from the Americas. Britain's army in America had to operate under numerous difficulties; provisions were short, officers were not well-trained, troops were operating far from their home base, the Americans did not have a single city from which they operated (ex: Paris for the French).