Ch. 6 The Transformation of Rome

The second destruction of the temple

-132 BCE to 35 CE, caused the destruction of Jerusalem itself and prompted the Romans to expel the entire Jewish population -Whereas the first exile of the Jews had ended after fifty years, this new diaspora would not be reversed until the controversial establishment of the modern state of Israel in 1948 -For over 500 years, Jerusalem even ceased to exist; on its ruins the Romans built the colony of Aelia Capitolina -It was only in 638, when the Islamic Caliphate established Arab rule in the region and restored Jerusalem as a holy site, that Jews were allowed to settle there

What was Jerome's contribution to the culture of the Roman West?

-He Translated the bible from Hebrew to Greek -Known as the Vulgate or "common" version, it was not the first attempt to produce a Latin Bible, but it quickly became the standard, and it remained so until the sixteenth century

In what ways were the so-called barbarians on the periphery of Rome connected to the empire?

-Many of them lived within Roman territory -They fought for Rome as foederati -They had extensive trade relationships with Romans

Why was the impact of barbarian invasions greater in the western Roman Empire than in the eastern Roman Empire?

-Roman legions were pulled away from the West to defend the East -Eastern Rome used its wealth to buy off barbarian attackers and direct them toward the West

soon after Jesus's execution, his followers began to assert that

-he had risen from the dead before being taken up into Heaven. Moreover, they said that Jesus had promised to return again at the end of time -Meanwhile, he had promised spiritual support to his followers in their own preaching missions. His entire career now had to be rethought and reinterpreted by his followers: in life, he had been a teacher and healer; in death, he had been revealed as something more -The evidence of this reinterpretation has come down to us in the letters of Paul and in the gospel narratives.

What were the main challenges to Roman rule during the second century?

-insufficient bureaucratic systems (as Rome became more ethnically and geographically diverse, its bureaucracy was no longer sufficient to address its varied needs) -long, porous borders -destabilizing succession crises

The gospel accounts of Jesus's life were probably written between?

70 and 100 C.E.

What did Augustine argue in The City of God?

All humanity is divided into two communities 1. those who live for material rewards 2. those who seek spiritual salvation

Because Commodus had no obvious successor, the armies stationed in various provinces of the empire raised their own candidates thus,

Civil war ensued, as it had during the crises of the late republic and in 68 C.E., when three men had struggled for imperial power (In this case, there were five major contenders. The eventual victor was a North African general called Septimius Severus who reigned from 193-211)

Realizing that the Roman Empire had become too large for a single ruler to control it:

Diocletian divided the empire in half and appointed a co-emperor to rule the western part.

the king of Galilee, who ruled as a client king of Rome

Herod

a Jewish preacher who challenged the ideology of the hereditary Temple priesthood

Jesus

As both Christianity and Judaism redefined themselves during the second and third centuries, they grew further apart because

Judaism was adapting to the destruction of the Temple and the mass exile of Jews from Jerusalem and surrounding provinces

How did the economy of the western Roman Empire change in the century after the barbarian invasions and the establishment of barbarian kingdoms?

Overland trade decreased significantly and the population decreased

What were the general results of the doctrinal quarrels of the early centuries?

The dogmas of the Christian Church gradually became fixed.

Once the Christian Church gained ascendancy in the Roman Empire, the highest authority in deciding doctrine was___________, though this would change in later centuries.

The leader of the church in Constantinople, the Patriarch of Constantinople

Which fact about the barbarian kingdoms most clearly signaled their independence from Roman imperial authority?

They stopped sending tax revenues to the imperial authorities

The Dead Sea scrolls

Written in Hebrew, Greek, and Aramaic at various times between 100 B.C.E and 70 C.E., they have revolutionized our understanding of Judaism in the lifetime of Jesus, a period known as Second Temple Judaism -What these documents show, overwhelmingly, is the diversity of religious practice in this period, and the intense competition among groups of believers.

Severus represents the degree to which the Roman Empire had succeeded in

making the world Roman—succeded so well that Rome itself was becoming irrelevant. One could be as much a Roman in Britannia or Africa as in central Italy

The Dead Sea Scrolls reveal that

significant divisions had arisen among Jewish communities, and that Jesus participated in several key debates

Peace was restored after the battle of Adrianople when:

the Roman Empire met the Goths' demand for food and land.

How did Jesus' teachings differ from the common practice of Judaism in his lifetime?

-Authority: Jesus' teaching authority was perceived as different from the traditional Jewish teachers, who based their teachings on the written Torah and the oral tradition of the Pharisees. Jesus, on the other hand, taught with a unique authority, often using parables and stories to convey his message. -Love and forgiveness: Jesus emphasized love, forgiveness, and mercy as central to his teachings, which was a departure from the common practice of Judaism in his time, which tended to emphasize justice and adherence to the Law. -Social status: Jesus associated with marginalized and outcast individuals, such as tax collectors and prostitutes, which was not the norm for Jewish leaders at the time. He challenged social hierarchies and advocated for the dignity and worth of all individuals. -Sabbath observance: Jesus' interpretation of Sabbath observance differed from the traditional Jewish interpretation, as he healed on the Sabbath and challenged the strict observance of Sabbath laws.

The founding of Constantinople..

-epitomizes the shift in Rome's center of gravity from west to east -It signaled Constantine's intention to abandon the political precedents set by Diocletian, including the institution of the tetrarchy {instead, the imperial succession became hereditary} -The East was becoming more populous, more prosperous, and more central to imperial policy; the West was becoming poorer and more peripheral. Many western cities now relied on transfers of funds from their eastern counterparts to keep them going and they suffered when these funds dried up, when trade or communication failed, or when Roman legions were transferred elsewhere.

Spread of Christianity in chronological order

1. Paul of Tarsus spread Christianity throughout the eastern half of the Roman Empire (With Paul, the early religion moved beyond the local Jewish community) 2. Reversing earlier policy, Constantine issued the Edict of Milan, protecting Roman citizens' religious freedom 3. The Council of Nicaea asserted that Arianism was heresy and defined an official Christian creed. 4. Thinkers like Augustine, Boethius, and Benedict developed Christian theology and monastic practice

Romans regarded the Germans as barbarians because:

Germans spoke neither Latin nor Greek and Germans did not live in cities.

Which elements of Roman rule were exemplified in the empire's response to Jesus?

Rome maintained good relations with local elites to help prevent rebellions against imperial control but noncitizens had fewer legal rights than citizens living under Roman rule

Severus spent most of his imperial career with his army and died

at Eboracum (York) in 211, after conducting a series of successful negotiations with Pictish tribes north of Hadrian's Wall (On his deathbed, he is reported to have said to his sons, "Get along together, you two, keep the soldiers rich, and don't bother about anyone else) -His elder son, Caracalla, didn't heed the first of these injunctions for long: by the end of the year, he had assassinated his brother, Geta. He then attempted to erase his brother from the historical record by declaring a damnatio memoriae, "a condemnation of memory" that banned the mention of Geta's name and defaced his image on public monuments

Nearly all the Greek and Latin texts on which we rely for our study of Western civilizations survive because they were

copied in monasteries (Monasteries also developed and disseminated an important information technology: the codex)

At the time of the Great Persecution of 303, what portion of the Roman population was Christian?

less than 5 percent in the West and no more than 10 percent in the East

Ambrose

-(c. 340-397 AD) was a Christian bishop, theologian, and saint who served as the Bishop of Milan in northern Italy. He is known for his influential role in shaping the theology and practice of the Western Church, as well as his contributions to the development of hymnody and liturgy. -Ambrose was born into a wealthy Roman family and served as a civil governor before being appointed as Bishop of Milan in 374 AD. He quickly established himself as a powerful preacher and a staunch defender of orthodox Christianity against the Arian heresy, which denied the divinity of Jesus Christ. He also played a key role in the conversion of the future Saint Augustine, who later credited Ambrose with helping him to embrace Christianity. -Ambrose is perhaps best known for his contributions to hymnody and liturgy. He is credited with the composition of several hymns, including the famous hymn "Te Deum," and he played a key role in the development of the liturgy of the Western Church. He emphasized the importance of music and singing in worship, and his influence can still be seen in the music and liturgy of the Roman Catholic Church. -Ambrose's theological writings, including his influential treatise "On the Holy Spirit," helped to shape the theology of the Western Church, particularly in the areas of Christology and pneumatology. He also played a key role in the development of the doctrine of the Trinity, which became a cornerstone of Christian orthodoxy. -Ambrose's legacy continues to be felt in the Western Church today. His contributions to hymnody and liturgy continue to inspire musicians and worship leaders, and his theological writings continue to be studied and admired by scholars and theologians. He is venerated as a saint in the Roman Catholic, Orthodox, and Anglican Churches, and his feast day is celebrated on December 7.

Augustine

-Augustine of Hippo (354-430 AD) was a Christian bishop, theologian, and philosopher who is widely considered one of the most important figures in the history of Christianity. His works, including "Confessions" and "The City of God," continue to be studied and admired by scholars and theologians around the world. -Augustine was born in North Africa and spent much of his life in the Roman Empire. He was educated in rhetoric and philosophy, and he later converted to Christianity after a long period of searching for truth and meaning. He was ordained as a bishop and served in several different cities, including Hippo, where he spent the last 35 years of his life. -Augustine's writings covered a wide range of topics, including theology, philosophy, ethics, and politics. His "Confessions," which he wrote as an autobiography, is considered one of the most important works of Christian literature, and it continues to be read and admired for its honesty and insight into the human condition. -In "The City of God," Augustine explored the relationship between the Church and the secular world, arguing that Christians should not place their ultimate hope and allegiance in earthly kingdoms and empires, but should instead look to the "City of God" as their ultimate destination. He also wrote extensively about the doctrine of original sin, the nature of evil, and the concept of grace. -Augustine's influence on the development of Christian theology and thought cannot be overstated. His writings helped to shape the development of the Western Church, and his ideas continue to be studied and debated by scholars and theologians today. He is revered as a saint in the Roman Catholic, Orthodox, and Anglican Churches, and his feast day is celebrated on August 28.

Diocletian

-Cavalry officer from the Roman province of Dalmatia (modern Croatia) who had risen through the ranks -ruled from 284 AD to 305 AD. He is remembered as one of the most significant emperors of the Late Roman Empire due to his sweeping administrative, military, and economic reforms that helped to stabilize the Roman Empire after a period of political and economic instability known as the Crisis of the Third Century. -One of Diocletian's most significant reforms was his decision to divide the Roman Empire into two halves, with himself ruling the eastern half and appointing a co-emperor, Maximian, to rule the western half. Each emperor was then responsible for the defense and administration of their respective regions. -He embraced the reality of Rome as a multicultural entity that could not be governed from one place by one person with one centralized bureaucracy -In 293, he delegated new authority to two junior emperors or "caesars," Galerius and Constantius. The result was a tetrarchy, a "rule of four," with each man governing a quarter of the empire, further subdivided into administrative units called dioceses. He also reorganized the Roman army, creating a new system of mobile field armies and frontier garrisons that helped to strengthen the defense of the empire against external threats. -In addition to these administrative and military reforms, Diocletian also implemented a number of economic policies that helped to stabilize the Roman economy. He introduced a new system of currency that helped to combat inflation, and he implemented price controls and regulations to prevent economic exploitation. -However, Diocletian is also remembered for his persecution of Christians. He believed that religious unity was essential for the stability of the empire, and he ordered the arrest and execution of thousands of Christians who refused to renounce their faith. -In 305 AD, after ruling for over 20 years, Diocletian abdicated from his position as emperor, which was a highly unusual move at the time. His abdication was followed by a period of instability and conflict known as the Tetrarchy, in which several different emperors vied for power. -Despite his controversial legacy, Diocletian's reforms had a lasting impact on the Roman Empire, and many of his administrative and military innovations were adopted by later Roman emperors. His system of dividing the empire into two halves and appointing co-emperors helped to provide stability and continuity during a tumultuous time in Roman history.

St. Benedict of Nursia

-Christian saint who is considered the founder of Western monasticism. He was born into a wealthy Roman family but gave up his comfortable life in Rome to live as a hermit in a cave near Subiaco, Italy. -As his reputation for holiness and wisdom grew, St. Benedict attracted followers and eventually founded several monasteries, including the famous Monte Cassino. The Rule of St. Benedict, which he wrote as a guide for monastic life, became the standard for monasticism in the Western Church and is still used today by Benedictine monks and nuns. -His book "The Rule", emphasizes obedience, humility, and a life of prayer, work, and study. It also emphasizes the importance of community life and the cultivation of virtues such as patience, compassion, and generosity. -St. Benedict is also known for his miracles, including the healing of the sick and the exorcism of demons. He is the patron saint of Europe, and his feast day is celebrated on July 11. -St. Benedict's influence on Western civilization extends beyond the realm of monasticism. His emphasis on the values of community, humility, and service has inspired countless individuals and movements throughout history, and his Rule continues to be studied and admired as a model of Christian living.

How did Christianity challenge the Roman government and Roman mos maiorum?

-Christians would not venerate the Roman emperor -Christian churches allowed women and slaves to wield power -Youth sometimes defied their fathers' wishes by converting

The Roman government made the shift from non-Christian hostility to embracing Christianity fairly quickly, what were the events of that change in chronological order?

-Diocletian instituted the Great Persecution, stripping Christians and Manicheans of their citizenship rights and government jobs -Starting during his time in Gaul and Britannia, Constantine associated himself with the cult of the sun god, Sol Invictus -Constantine converted to Christianity after a vision of a cross in the sky before the Battle of Milvian Bridge in 312 AD. The vision was accompanied by the words "In hoc signo vinces" (In this sign, you will conquer). -When he marched on Rome to assert his title as augustus, Constantine added Christian symbols to his banners and shields -Constantine funded the building of Christian churches and issued the Edict of Milan in 313, guaranteeing freedom of worship to all citizens.

Barracks Emperors

-From 235 to 284 C.E. there were no fewer than 26 of these military commanders in Rome who, backed by a few loyal legions, struggled with one another and an array of problems -refers to a group of Roman emperors who rose to power during a period of political and economic instability in the 3rd century AD. This period is known as the Crisis of the Third Century, and it was marked by frequent civil wars, economic turmoil, and invasions by foreign powers (a time when the empire was nearly destroyed) -The Barracks Emperors were so-called because they often came to power as a result of their military prowess, rather than through the traditional means of inheritance or appointment by the Senate. Many of them were generals or commanders of the Roman army who seized power in the chaos of the times. Some of the most notable Barracks Emperors include: 1. Maximinus Thrax (235-238 AD): a Thracian soldier who rose to power after a mutiny by the Roman army in 235 AD. He was known for his harsh rule and his persecution of Christians. 2. Gordian III (238-244 AD): appointed emperor at the age of 13 after the assassination of Maximinus. He was initially successful in his military campaigns, but he was eventually killed in a rebellion by his own troops. 3. Decius (249-251 AD):a senator and general who was appointed emperor by the army. He launched a series of persecutions against Christians, but he was killed in battle against the Goths in 251 AD. 4. Valerian (253-260 AD): a senator and general who was appointed emperor by the army. He was known for his efforts to stabilize the economy, but he was captured by the Persians in 260 AD and died in captivity. 5. Aurelian (270-275 AD): a soldier who rose to power after defeating several rival claimants to the throne. He was known for his military successes and his efforts to reunify the Roman Empire, but he was assassinated in 275 AD. -The Barracks Emperors were generally seen as weak and ineffective rulers who were unable to bring stability to the Roman Empire. Their reigns were marked by frequent civil wars and military coups, and the economic and social problems of the Crisis of the Third Century continued to plague the Empire. However, some of them, like Aurelian, were able to make significant contributions to the Empire's military and administrative capabilities.

Which of Diocletian's changes illustrated his adoption of the title dominus, in place of the more traditional princeps?

-He moved his capital to Nicomedia (in modern Turkey) but left the Senate in Rome. -His clothing, palace, and public ceremonies began to resemble those of Persian royalty.

Jesus's life

-Jesus was born around the year 4 BCE, a generation or so after Augustus came to power in Rome -When Jesus was around thirty years old, he was endorsed by a Jewish preacher of moral reform, John the Baptist, whom some considered to be a prophet. Thereafter, Jesus traveled widely around the rural areas of Galilee and Judea, preaching and displaying unusual healing powers. He accumulated a number of disciples, some of whom had political ambitions -Around the year 30 CE, Jesus staged an entry into Jerusalem during Passover, a major religious holiday that brought large and excitable crowds to the city. This move was interpreted as a bid for political power by both the Roman colonial government and the high ranking Jews of the Temple. -Three of the gospel accounts say that Jesus also drew attention to himself by physically attacking merchants and moneychangers associated with the Temple. The city's religious leaders therefore arrested him and turned him over to the Roman governor, Pontius Pilate, for sentencing

How did Institutes by Cassiodorus, help to keep Roman classical scholarship alive?

-Like Augustine, other Christian scholars believed monks needed to study the Bible to fully engage in a life of worship -In order to truly understand the Bible, monks had to study Greek and Roman classical literature -Many of the classical Greek and Roman texts studied by modern scholars were copied and preserved in monasteries (The ideas and decisions of early Christian scholars have affected our modern knowledge of pre-Christian Europe) -To make sure monks had access to Greek and Roman classical literature, monasteries became sites where classical works were stored and copied

"the five good emperors" (96-180)

-Nerva (96-98) -Trajan (98-117) -Hadrian (117-138) -Antoninus Pius(138-161) -Marcus Aurelius(161-180) {This harmonious state of affairs was partly accidental. None of these first four rulers had a surviving male heir, and so a custom developed whereby each adopted a young man of a good family and trained his successor in the craft of government. This sensible practice changed with the death of Marcus Aurelius in 180. Although Aurelius was the closest Roman equivalent to Plato's ideal of the philosopher king, Marcus was not wise enough to recognize that his own son, Commodus, lacked the capacity to rule effectively}

Based on Pliny's letter to Trajan, how did social status affect the government's treatment of individuals suspected of being Christians?

-Non-citizens could avoid execution if they publicly rejected Christianity (Pliny gave non-citizens multiple opportunities to recant their religious convictions before ordering their execution. Even then, he suggests that the execution is more for their "obstinacy and inflexible stubbornness" than for their beliefs, per se) -Slaves were tortured to obtain information (Pliny ordered the torture of two enslaved women to find out if the fairly harmless descriptions of Christian activities were true) -Roman citizens had legal rights, even when they admitted to being Christians

Hadrian

-Roman emperor who ruled from 117 AD to 138 AD, succeeding Trajan as emperor. He was born in Spain and became emperor after Trajan died without an heir. Hadrian is known for his military campaigns, his public works projects, and his legal reforms. -One of Hadrian's major achievements was the construction of the Hadrian's Wall in Britain, which marked the northern boundary of the Roman Empire. The wall was over 73 miles long and was designed to defend the Roman Empire against raids from the north. Hadrian also built a number of other fortifications throughout the Roman Empire to strengthen its defenses. -In addition to his military campaigns, Hadrian was also known for his public works projects. He commissioned the construction of the Temple of Venus and Roma in Rome, which was the largest temple in the Roman Empire. He also built a number of aqueducts, bridges, and public buildings throughout the empire. -Hadrian was also known for his legal reforms. He codified Roman law and made it more accessible to the people. He also established a system of trial by jury and introduced reforms to improve the administration of justice. -Finally, Hadrian was known for his interest in philosophy and the arts. He was a patron of the arts and supported the work of many writers, poets, and philosophers. He was particularly interested in Greek culture and commissioned the construction of a number of Greek-style buildings throughout the empire.

Antonius Pius

-Roman emperor who ruled from 138 AD to 161 AD. He succeeded Hadrian as emperor and was known for his peaceful reign and his efforts to maintain stability and prosperity in the Roman Empire. -During his reign, Antoninus Pius focused on maintaining the stability of the Roman Empire through diplomatic efforts rather than military conquests. He negotiated peace treaties with various foreign powers and maintained good relations with the Parthian Empire in the east. -Antoninus Pius was also known for his public works projects. He commissioned the construction of a number of public buildings and infrastructure projects throughout the Roman Empire. He also supported the arts and literature, and his reign is remembered as a time of great cultural and intellectual achievement. -In addition to his public works projects, Antoninus Pius was also known for his legal reforms. He codified Roman law and improved the administration of justice. He also abolished the practice of selling children into slavery and provided financial assistance to poor children and orphans. -Antoninus Pius was a patron of the arts and literature. He supported the work of many writers and philosophers, including the historian Arrian and the philosopher Epictetus. He was also a patron of the arts and commissioned the construction of a number of public monuments and sculptures.

Commodus

-Roman emperor who ruled from 180 AD to 192 AD. He was the son of Marcus Aurelius and is remembered as one of the most tyrannical and incompetent Roman emperors. -Commodus was known for his extravagance and his love of gladiatorial games. He often participated in the games himself, fighting as a gladiator and killing wild animals in the arena. He also had a reputation for cruelty and violence, and he is said to have killed a number of people, including his own sister, in fits of rage. -Commodus was also known for his mismanagement of the Roman Empire. He neglected the administration of justice and allowed corruption to flourish among his officials. He also overspent on his personal luxuries, leaving the Roman treasury nearly bankrupt. -During his reign, the Roman Empire faced a number of military threats, including invasions by the Germanic tribes on the northern frontier. Commodus proved to be an ineffective military leader, and he often relied on his generals to lead the Roman armies. Commodus alienated the army by withdrawing from costly wars along the Danube -In 192, a conspiracy was hatched inside his own palace, where he was strangled by his wrestling coach. Ultimately, Commodus was assassinated in a plot orchestrated by his own officials. His reign is remembered as a period of decline and corruption in the Roman Empire, and he is often seen as a symbol of the decline and fall of the Roman Empire.

Galerius

-Roman emperor who ruled from 305 AD to 311 AD. He was one of the four emperors who formed the Tetrarchy, a system of joint rule that was established by Diocletian in an attempt to bring stability to the Roman Empire. -Galerius was born in Dacia (modern-day Romania) and rose to power through his military career. He was appointed by Diocletian as Caesar (junior emperor) in 293 AD and given responsibility for the Balkans and the Danube frontier. He played a key role in the suppression of the revolt of Carausius in Britain and the defeat of the Sarmatians and other tribes in the east. -After Diocletian's abdication in 305 AD, Galerius became one of the senior emperors of the Tetrarchy, along with Maximian and the two new Augusti (senior emperors), Constantius Chlorus and Constantine the Great. Galerius was given responsibility for the eastern half of the Roman Empire, with his capital in Nicomedia (modern-day Turkey). -During his reign, Galerius continued the persecution of Christians that had been started by Diocletian. He issued several edicts that ordered the destruction of Christian churches and the arrest and execution of Christians who refused to renounce their faith. However, in 311 AD, he issued an edict of toleration that brought an end to the persecution and allowed Christians to worship freely. -Galerius also faced several military challenges during his reign. He fought against the Persians in the east and against the Goths and other Germanic tribes in the Balkans. He was able to achieve some military successes, but also suffered several defeats. -Galerius died in 311 AD, possibly as a result of cancer. His death marked the end of the Tetrarchy and the beginning of a new phase in Roman history that would be characterized by conflict and civil war. -Overall, Galerius is remembered as a controversial figure in Roman history. While he played a key role in maintaining the stability of the Tetrarchy and achieving some military successes, his persecution of Christians and his involvement in the turbulent politics of the Late Roman Empire have earned him a reputation as a brutal and divisive figure.

Trajan

-Roman emperor who ruled from 98 to 117 AD. He was born Marcus Ulpius Traianus in 53 AD in Italica, a Roman colony in modern-day Spain. Trajan was adopted by the previous emperor, Nerva, as his successor. -As emperor, Trajan was known for his military conquests and expansion of the Roman Empire. He launched campaigns against the Dacians, a people living in modern-day Romania, and conquered their kingdom in two wars. He also expanded Roman territory into Mesopotamia, creating the province of Arabia Petraea. -In addition to his military successes, Trajan was known for his public works projects, including the construction of roads, aqueducts, and public buildings. He also supported the arts and sponsored the construction of the Trajan's Column in Rome, which commemorates his victories over the Dacians. -Trajan's reign is often seen as a high point of the Roman Empire, characterized by stability, prosperity, and expansion. He died in 117 AD while on campaign in the East, and he was succeeded by his adopted son, Hadrian.

The shifting center of the empire and the widening gap between East and West were not the only fault lines emerging in this period. There were

-Secessionist movements among many residents of Britannia, Gaul, Hispania, and Germania -The residents of Egypt were particularly affected by high levels of taxation, which targeted their rich agricultural lands -North Africans and other citizens living in the empire's interior regions were increasingly ignored by authorities -Italians resented their new status as provincial subjects of Constantinople {Beneath the surface of imperial autocracy, the fourth century empire was slowly dissolving into its constituent parts}

Jesus's relationship with the Jews

-When Jesus was born, Roman rule in his region was still inspiring extreme responses -While many Jews were content to live under Rome's protection—especially the urban elite, who reaped the rewards of participation in the Roman economy and administration—there was talk of rebellion among rural communities and the urban poor -Many of those disadvantaged by Roman rule hoped for a messiah who would establish Jewish autonomy and a new Jewish kingdom. The most extreme of these were the Zealots, whose activities eventually led to two disastrous revolts {the first, between 66 and 70 C.E., ended in the Romans' destruction of the Temple that had been rebuilt when Cyrus the Great released the Jews from captivity in Babylon, 600 years earlier}

In what ways did women lose prominence in the Christian Church as the Church gained prominence within Rome?

-Women lost the opportunity to hold office, and Gospels written by women or highlighting women were excluded from official doctrine -The Church rejected Gospels that emphasized women's roles as companions of Jesus, including one attributed to Mary Magdalene -Ascetic and monastic practices rejected food and sex, activities that were strongly associated with women -Old Church structures, which allowed women to hold office, changed to mirror Roman government, which excluded women

Marcus Aurelius

-a Roman emperor who ruled from 161 AD to 180 AD. He is known for his philosophical writings and his military campaigns, particularly his battles against the Germanic tribes on the northern frontier of the Roman Empire. -Marcus Aurelius was a Stoic philosopher, and his writings, particularly his book "Meditations," have had a significant impact on Western philosophy. In his writings, he reflects on the nature of the universe, the importance of virtue, and the role of reason in human life. He believed that a person's inner life was more important than external circumstances and that true happiness came from living a virtuous life. -In addition to his philosophical pursuits, Marcus Aurelius was also a successful military leader. He spent much of his reign fighting against the Germanic tribes on the northern frontier of the Roman Empire. He also led campaigns against the Parthian Empire in the east. -Despite his military campaigns, Marcus Aurelius is often remembered as a wise and just ruler who was dedicated to the welfare of his people. He made efforts to improve the administration of justice and to provide financial assistance to the poor. He also supported the arts and literature and commissioned the construction of a number of public buildings and monuments. -Marcus Aurelius was succeeded by his son, Commodus, who was known for his extravagance and tyranny. However, Marcus Aurelius is remembered as one of the greatest Roman emperors and as a philosopher whose writings continue to inspire and influence people today.

Nerva

-a Roman emperor who ruled from 96 to 98 AD. He was born Marcus Cocceius Nerva in 30 AD in Narni, Italy. Nerva was an experienced politician and administrator, and he was selected by the Roman Senate to succeed the tyrannical Domitian as emperor. -As emperor, Nerva tried to improve the lives of the Roman people by reducing taxes, freeing prisoners who had been unjustly detained, and helping to alleviate poverty. He also worked to restore the Senate's power and to improve relations with the Roman army. -Nerva's most important act as emperor was his selection of Trajan as his successor. Trajan was a capable general and administrator, and his reign was marked by military conquests and the expansion of the Roman Empire. -Nerva died of natural causes in 98 AD, and he was succeeded by Trajan. He is remembered as a wise and just ruler who helped to stabilize the Roman Empire after the tumultuous reign of Domitian.

Early Christianity posed

-a challenge to the Roman Empire and its core values at almost every level -To be a Christian was to be, by definition, an enemy of Rome, because Christians refused to worship the emperor as the embodiment of Rome's gods; denying his divinity meant denying his authority -The Christ whom Christians worshiped had himself been declared a criminal, a political insurgent, and had been duly tried and put to death by the Roman state

Alaric the Visigoth

-a prominent leader of the Visigoths, a Germanic people who played a significant role in the decline and fall of the Western Roman Empire. Alaric is best known for his sack of Rome in 410 AD, which marked the first time in almost 800 years that the city had been captured by an enemy force. -Alaric was born around 370 AD, and was raised as a warrior in the Gothic tradition. In 395 AD, he became the leader of the Visigoths, and soon after led them on a series of campaigns across the Balkans and Greece. He repeatedly clashed with the Roman Empire, which had long been a powerful force in the region. -In 410 AD, Alaric and his army marched on Rome, which had been weakened by political instability, economic decline, and military defeats. After negotiations with the Roman authorities broke down, Alaric and his soldiers sacked the city, looting its treasures and causing widespread destruction. Although the sack of Rome was not the sole cause of the Western Roman Empire's decline and fall, it marked a turning point in the history of the Mediterranean world. -Alaric died soon after the sack of Rome, and was succeeded as leader of the Visigoths by his brother-in-law Ataulf. The Visigoths would continue to play a significant role in the affairs of the Mediterranean world for centuries to come, eventually establishing their own kingdom in what is now Spain and Portugal.

Jerome

-also known as Saint Jerome, was a Christian scholar and theologian who lived from around 347 to 420 AD. He is best known for his translation of the Bible into Latin, known as the Vulgate, which became the standard version of the Bible used in the Western Church for over a thousand years. -Born in Dalmatia (modern-day Croatia), Jerome was educated in Rome and became a Christian while living there. He traveled to the Holy Land, where he lived as a hermit for several years before being ordained as a priest. He spent much of his life in Bethlehem, where he established a monastery and continued his work as a scholar and theologian. -Jerome was a prolific writer and translator, and his works include commentaries on the Bible, theological treatises, and letters to other scholars and theologians. He is known for his rigorous scholarship and his emphasis on the importance of studying the original languages of the Bible. He also had a reputation for his fiery temper and his sharp tongue, which sometimes got him into trouble with other scholars and church leaders. -Jerome's translation of the Bible into Latin was a monumental achievement that had a profound impact on Western Christianity. The Vulgate became the standard version of the Bible used in the Western Church, and it helped to unify Christian doctrine and practice across different regions and languages. Jerome's scholarship and devotion to the study of Scripture continue to be an inspiration to scholars and theologians today.

Paul of Tarsus

-also known as Saint Paul or the Apostle Paul, was an early Christian leader who played a crucial role in the development of Christianity. He was born Saul of Tarsus in the city of Tarsus, in modern-day Turkey, in approximately 5-10 AD -Saul was a devout Jew and initially persecuted Christians, but later converted to Christianity after a transformative experience on the road to Damascus. -After his conversion, Paul became one of the most important figures in the early Christian church. He traveled extensively throughout the Mediterranean region, preaching the gospel and establishing new Christian communities. He wrote numerous letters, or epistles, to these communities, which are now an important part of the New Testament. -Paul never met Jesus instead, he claimed to have received a direct revelation of his teachings. This led to a number of major disputes -Paul's teachings emphasized the importance of faith in Jesus Christ and the belief that salvation was available to all people, regardless of their background. He also emphasized the role of grace in the Christian life and the importance of living a life of love and service to others. -Paul's teachings were influential in the development of Christianity, and his epistles continue to be studied and read by Christians today. He is also known for his martyrdom, as he was executed in Rome by the Roman authorities in the mid-60s AD.

Flavius Magnus Aurelius Cassiodorus Senator

-better known as Cassiodorus, was a Roman statesman, writer, and monk who lived from c. 485 to c. 585 AD. He is best known for his extensive literary output, which includes works on history, theology, and music, as well as his role as a prominent figure in the administration of the Gothic Kingdom of Italy. -Cassiodorus was born into a wealthy and influential Roman family and was educated in Constantinople, where he studied rhetoric and law. He later returned to Italy and began a career in the Roman imperial administration, serving under the Ostrogothic king Theodoric the Great. -After Theodoric's death in 526 AD, Cassiodorus became a prominent figure in the Gothic Kingdom of Italy, serving as a high-ranking official and adviser to several Gothic kings. He was known for his administrative skills and his dedication to preserving the cultural heritage of Rome, and he played a key role in establishing a system of education and scholarship in the Gothic kingdom. -In his later years, Cassiodorus withdrew from public life and became a monk, establishing a monastery in southern Italy known as Vivarium. There, he continued to write and to compile works on a wide range of subjects, including theology, music, and philosophy. -Cassiodorus is best known for his "Variae," a collection of letters and administrative documents that provide a detailed account of the political and cultural life of Italy during the early Middle Ages. He also wrote a number of other important works, including a history of the Goths, a commentary on the Psalms, and a treatise on music. -Cassiodorus was a prolific writer and scholar whose work had a profound impact on medieval Europe. His emphasis on education and scholarship helped to preserve the knowledge and culture of the ancient world, and his ideas continue to be studied and debated by scholars today.

In the eastern Roman Empire, a thriving economy made it easier to equip and maintain a strong fighting force. Cities remained centers of commerce and industry, which meant that

-citizens possessed greater taxable wealth and could sustain the burdens of the imperial bureaucracy more easily -Moreover, potential invaders could be bought off or bribed to direct their attention elsewhere—as Alaric had been -For all these reasons, the eastern empire prospered during the fifth century, while the western empire floundered. After the fifth century migrations, these differences were exacerbated. Every territory that was plundered or occupied represented tax revenues lost, and the scale of these losses was enormous

For most Jews at this time, Judaism consisted of

-going up to the Temple on holy days -paying the annual Temple tax -reciting the morning and evening prayers -observing certain fundamental laws, such as circumcision, ritual purity, and prohibitions on the consumption of certain foods {Jesus deemphasized such observances, and it may have seemed to some that he wished to abolish them, but what made him most controversial was his followers' claim that he was the messiah sent to deliver Israel from its enemies}

How did barbarian cultures on the periphery of the Roman Empire differ from Roman culture?

-had no tradition of urban culture -practiced Arian Christianity -spoke neither Latin nor Greek

Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius

-philosopher, statesman, and scholar who lived from c. 480 to 524 AD. He is best known for his influential work, "The Consolation of Philosophy," which he wrote while he was imprisoned and awaiting execution. -Boethius was born into a prominent Roman family and was educated in Athens, where he studied philosophy, mathematics, and music. He later became a senator and was appointed as the consul by the Ostrogothic king Theodoric the Great, who had taken control of Italy in 493 AD. -Despite his high position, Boethius fell out of favor with Theodoric and was accused of conspiring against him. He was imprisoned in Pavia, where he spent the last year of his life writing "The Consolation of Philosophy." The book, which is written in the form of a dialogue between Boethius and Lady Philosophy, explores the nature of happiness, fate, and free will, and has been widely read and admired throughout the centuries. -In addition to his philosophical and literary works, Boethius was also a scholar and translator who played an important role in the transmission of ancient Greek philosophy to medieval Europe. He translated the works of Aristotle, Euclid, and other Greek thinkers into Latin, and his translations were widely used in medieval universities. -He is often described as the "last of the Romans," and his goal was to preserve the best aspects of ancient learning by compiling a series of handbooks and anthologies which packaged and explained classical texts in ways appropriate for Christian readers -Boethius was executed in 524 AD, but his works continued to be influential throughout the Middle Ages and beyond. His philosophy, which combines elements of Platonic and Aristotelian thought, had a profound impact on medieval thinkers such as St. Thomas Aquinas, and his ideas continue to be studied and debated by scholars today.

Septimus Severus

-ruled from 193 AD to 211 AD. He was the first emperor of African descent and is remembered as a successful military leader and a reformer who strengthened the Roman Empire. Severus had been born and raised in the North African town of Leptis Magna (now in Libya) and identified strongly with his father's Punic ancestors, seemingly more so than with his mother's patrician family -Severus rose through the ranks of the Roman military and became emperor after the assassination of Commodus. He faced a number of challenges during his reign, including rebellions by his rivals and threats from foreign powers. -Severus was a capable military leader and was able to successfully defend the Roman Empire against its enemies. He led campaigns against the Parthian Empire in the east and the Germanic tribes on the northern frontier. He also reorganized the Roman military, creating new legions and improving the training and discipline of his soldiers. -In addition to his military successes, Severus was also a reformer who made efforts to strengthen the Roman Empire. He improved the administration of justice and made reforms to the Roman economy, including reforms to the tax system and the currency. He also made efforts to improve the lives of the poor and provided financial assistance to cities affected by natural disasters. -Severus was also a patron of the arts and literature, and his reign is remembered as a time of cultural and intellectual achievement. He supported the work of many writers and philosophers, including the historian Cassius Dio. -After his death, Severus was succeeded by his sons, Caracalla and Geta, who were both assassinated in a power struggle. Severus is remembered as a capable leader who strengthened the Roman Empire and left a lasting legacy on Western civilization.

Carcalla

-ruled from 211 AD to 217 AD. He was the eldest son of Septimius Severus and is remembered as a cruel and tyrannical ruler who was responsible for the murder of many of his opponents and members of his own family. -Caracalla's reign was marked by violence and instability. He had a number of rivals and enemies who he saw as threats to his power, and he ordered the execution of many of them. He also had his own brother, Geta, murdered in a violent confrontation in their mother's presence. -Despite his reputation for cruelty, Caracalla was a capable military leader and led successful campaigns against the Parthian Empire in the east. He also made efforts to improve the administration of the Roman Empire, including reforms to the legal system and the appointment of new officials. -One of Caracalla's most significant actions as emperor was the enactment of the Constitutio Antoniniana, which granted Roman citizenship to all free men in the Empire. This was a significant reform that helped to unify the Empire and to strengthen the loyalty of its citizens. -Caracalla's reign came to an end when he was assassinated by one of his own soldiers in 217 AD

Alexander Severus

-ruled from 222 AD to 235 AD. He was the cousin of Elagabalus, the previous emperor, and is remembered as a capable and just ruler who made efforts to reform the Roman Empire. -was ruled by his mother Julia Mamea, the third in a succession of strong women behind the Severan dynasty, who even traveled with her son on military campaigns {this eventually proved fatal} -During his reign, Alexander Severus faced a number of challenges, including military threats from the Germanic tribes on the northern frontier and rebellions by his own soldiers. He was a capable military leader and was able to successfully defend the Roman Empire against these threats. -Alexander Severus was also a reformer who made efforts to improve the administration of the Roman Empire. He reformed the legal system and appointed new officials to oversee the administration of justice. He also made efforts to improve the economy by implementing new tax reforms and by promoting trade and commerce. -One of Alexander Severus' most significant reforms was the establishment of a professional army, made up of volunteers who were paid a salary and who were not allowed to engage in any other occupation. This helped to strengthen the loyalty of the soldiers and to improve the effectiveness of the Roman military. -Alexander Severus was also known for his respect for the traditions of the Roman Empire. He promoted the study of classical literature and art and was a patron of the arts. He also made efforts to promote religious tolerance and to reconcile the different religious factions within the Roman Empire. -Despite his efforts to reform the Roman Empire, Alexander Severus was eventually assassinated in a plot orchestrated by his own soldiers. In 235, Alexander and his mother were murdered at Moguntiacum (Mainz) in Upper Germania, when the army of the region turned against them. Nearly fifty years of civil unrest ensued. The Pax Romana was over. His reign is remembered as a period of relative stability and reform in the Roman Empire, and he is often seen as a model for just and effective rule.

Constantius Chlorus

-ruled from 305 AD to 306 AD. He was one of the four emperors who formed the Tetrarchy, a system of joint rule that was established by Diocletian in an attempt to bring stability to the Roman Empire. -Constantius was born in modern-day Serbia and rose to power through his military career. He served as a cavalry officer under the emperor Aurelian and later became governor of Dalmatia and Moesia. In 293 AD, he was appointed by Diocletian as Caesar (junior emperor) and given responsibility for Gaul and Britain. -As Caesar, Constantius was able to establish himself as an effective administrator and military commander. He played a key role in the suppression of the revolt of Carausius in Britain and the defeat of the Alemanni and other Germanic tribes in Gaul. He also helped to reorganize the Roman army and improve the efficiency of the imperial bureaucracy. -After Diocletian's abdication in 305 AD, Constantius became one of the senior emperors of the Tetrarchy, along with Maximian and the two new Augusti (senior emperors), Galerius and Constantine the Great. He was given responsibility for the western half of the Roman Empire, with his capital in Trier (modern-day Germany). -During his brief reign, Constantius continued the administrative and military reforms that had been started by Diocletian. He also pursued a policy of religious tolerance, which marked a significant departure from the persecution of Christians that had been carried out by his predecessors. -However, Constantius' reign was cut short by his sudden death in 306 AD. He was succeeded by his son, Constantine the Great, who would go on to become one of the most important emperors in Roman history. -Overall, Constantius Chlorus is remembered as a capable and effective administrator and military commander. His reforms helped to bring stability to the Roman Empire and set the stage for the reign of his son, Constantine, who would go on to make significant contributions to the development of Christianity and the shaping of the medieval world.

Constantine

-ruled from 306 AD to 337 AD. He is best known for his contributions to Christianity and the establishment of Constantinople as the new capital of the Roman Empire. Constantine was born in 272 AD in modern-day Serbia, the son of the emperor Constantius Chlorus and his wife Helena. After his father's death in 306 AD, Constantine was declared emperor by his troops in Britain. He then set out to consolidate his power and establish his legitimacy as an emperor. -One of Constantine's most significant achievements was his conversion to Christianity. In 312 AD, he had a vision of a cross in the sky with the words "in hoc signo vinces" ("in this sign, you will conquer"). Following this vision, Constantine ordered that the Christian symbol be painted on the shields of his soldiers, and he went on to win a decisive victory over his rival Maxentius at the Battle of Milvian Bridge. This victory was seen as a turning point in the Christianization of the Roman Empire. -After his victory, Constantine issued the Edict of Milan in 313 AD, which granted religious tolerance to Christians and other religious groups. He also convened the Council of Nicaea in 325 AD, which established the basic doctrines of Christianity and sought to resolve theological disputes within the church. In addition to his religious reforms, Constantine also made significant contributions to the political and administrative structure of the Roman Empire. He established a new capital at Byzantium, which he renamed Constantinople, and he reorganized the administrative divisions of the empire. He also introduced a new system of imperial succession, known as the dynastic system, which ensured that power would be passed down within the emperor's family. -Despite his accomplishments, Constantine was not without his faults. He was known for his ruthlessness and his willingness to use violence to achieve his goals. He also continued to persecute pagans and other religious groups that were deemed to be threats to the Christian faith. -Constantine died in 337 AD, and he was succeeded by his sons Constantine II, Constantius II, and Constans. Overall, he is remembered as one of the most important figures in Roman history, both for his contributions to Christianity and for his political and administrative reforms.

Maximian

-ruled jointly with Diocletian from 286 AD to 305 AD. He was appointed by Diocletian as co-emperor of the western half of the Roman Empire, with his capital in Milan. -During his time as emperor, Maximian played a key role in implementing Diocletian's administrative and military reforms. He helped to reorganize the Roman army and was responsible for overseeing the defense of the western half of the empire against external threats. -Maximian was also known for his military successes. He was a skilled commander who led several successful campaigns against the Germans and other tribes in the north and west of the empire. In 293 AD, he played a key role in defeating the usurper Carausius and restoring Roman control over Britain. -Like Diocletian, Maximian was also responsible for the persecution of Christians. He ordered the arrest and execution of many Christians, and he was known for his brutal methods of interrogation and punishment. -Despite his contributions to the Roman Empire, Maximian's reign was not without its problems. He faced several revolts and rebellions during his time as emperor, including a failed attempt by his own son, Maxentius, to overthrow him. -In 305 AD, Maximian, like Diocletian, abdicated from his position as emperor. However, he was later forced to return to power by his own son, who had become emperor of the western half of the empire. Maximian was eventually defeated and forced to commit suicide in 310 AD. -Maximian's legacy is somewhat mixed. On the one hand, he played a key role in implementing Diocletian's reforms and defending the western half of the empire against external threats. On the other hand, his persecution of Christians and his involvement in the turbulent politics of the Late Roman Empire have earned him a reputation as a brutal and controversial figure in Roman history.

Romulus Augustulus

-the last emperor of the Western Roman Empire. He was born in 461 AD as the son of the Roman general Orestes, who had risen to power in the Western Roman Empire as the de facto ruler. Orestes, who had been appointed as magister militum (commander-in-chief) by the previous emperor, Julius Nepos, had overthrown Nepos in 475 AD and installed his own son, Romulus Augustus, as emperor. -Romulus Augustus was only 14 years old when he was crowned as emperor in 475 AD. He was not a particularly strong or effective ruler, and he was widely regarded as a puppet of his father, who held most of the real power in the empire. -Despite this, Romulus Augustus did make some attempts to assert his authority. He issued some coins in his own name, and he tried to rally the support of the Roman Senate and the people of Rome. However, his efforts were largely unsuccessful, and he was unable to prevent the collapse of the Western Roman Empire. -In 476 AD, Odoacer, a Germanic chieftain who had served in the Roman army, led a rebellion against Orestes and his son. Orestes was captured and executed, and Romulus Augustus was deposed and exiled to Campania, where he lived out the rest of his life in obscurity. -The deposition of Romulus Augustus marked the end of the Western Roman Empire and the beginning of the Early Middle Ages in Europe. It also marked the end of the traditional Roman imperial system, which had lasted for over 500 years. From this point on, the Roman Empire was divided into two parts, with the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire) continuing to exist for another 1000 years. -Despite his brief and largely ineffectual reign, Romulus Augustus has been remembered as an important historical figure. His name, which combines the names of the legendary founder of Rome (Romulus) and its first emperor (Augustus), has become a symbol of the decline and fall of the Roman Empire.

What was Arianism?

-the sect of Christianity that was condemned as heresy after protracted struggles and was strongly influenced by Neoplatonic ideas (Arians, like Neoplatonists, believed there was a clear division between the single divine creator and everything else, which was created. Jesus, in their view, could not be equal to this creator)

when Jesus's followers began to preach to non-Jewish audiences

-they found many willing listeners that began to represent Jesus in terms that made sense to the Greek-speaking communities of the Hellenistic world -Jesus, his followers now proclaimed, was not merely a messiah for the Jews, he was the "anointed one" (in Greek, Christos), the divine representative of God who had suffered and died for the sins of all humanity -He had now risen from the dead and ascended into Heaven, and he would return to judge all the world's inhabitants at the end of time.

By the mid-400s, Rome had been sacked, a Visigothic kingdom occupied modern Spain, the Vandals controlled North Africa, and the Franks and the Burgundians lived in modern France What were the events that led to this situation?

1. Central Asian Huns migrated into the Black Sea region, forcing the Goths to enter the Roman Empire as refugees 2. The Roman army was defeated by the Goths at Adrianople when they tried to quell a Gothic rebellion 3. In order to get Alaric—now a Roman military commander—to stop looting Greece, the eastern Roman Emperor encouraged him to move his people to Italy 4. Alaric and the Goths invaded and sacked Rome, but Alaric did not shift from conqueror of Rome to ruler of Rome. Instead, he and his people went to Spain.

When did Constantinople, the wealthy eastern capital of the Roman Empire, finally fall to foreign conquest?

1453

Chronology

27 bce-283 CE- Principate (Augustus to Diocletian) 4 bce-30 ce- Lifetime of Jesus 46-67- Paul's missionary career 66-70- Jewish rebellion 132-135- Expulsion of Jews from Jerusalem 203- Death of Perpetua at Carthage 235-284- Rule of the "barracks emperors" 284-305- Diocletian divides the empire 312- Constantine's victory 313- Edict of Milan 325- Council of Nicaea convened 370-430- Careers of Jerome, Ambrose, and Augustine 376- Frontier migrations begin 391- Pagan religion outlawed 410- Visigoths sack Rome 476- Odovacar deposes Romulus Augustulus 493-526- Rule of Theodoric the Ostrogoth 500-583- Careers of Boethius, Benedict, and Cassiodorus

the Huns had arrived in the region corresponding to modern day Hungary, forcing several other peoples westward toward the Rhine. On New Year's Eve in the year 406, a people known as the Vandals crossed the frozen Rhine and invaded Gaul. To repulse them, Stilicho (whose own father had been a Vandal) made an alliance with Alaric and his Goths. But Stilicho was deposed just a few months later, and he could no longer exercise any restraint on Alaric's actions. Because of this,

Alaric's army captured and sacked the city, but by then in 410, Rome had little to offer in the way of either food or spoils -So many of the Goths moved on, eventually settling in southern Gaul and Hispania, where they established what came to be known as the Visigothic ("West Gothic") kingdom. Others, known as the Ostrogoths ("East Goths") remained in Italy

Peace was restored by accommodating the Goths' demands for goods and farmland and by enrolling them in the Roman army under their own military leaders. But when Theodosius divided the empire between his two young sons, their military advisors—including Stilicho, the de facto ruler of the West—constantly undermined one another. This provided an opening for

Alaric, a young leader of the Goths, to advance his own agenda. -Targeting the wealthier East, he led his army into Greece, looting or capturing many ancient cities, including Athens -In a desperate attempt to halt these incursions, Alaric was offered a Roman military command and encouraged to move into Italy: the price of peace in the East was the West

The monastic way of life in the West was influenced greatly by establishing a set of rules written by:

Benedict

When did Christianity go from being illegal in Rome to supplanting Rome's traditional religion?

Diocletian's Great Persecution was 303 & Theodosius prohibited the practice of pagan religions in 391 so about ninety years

What does Diocletian's distribution of power suggest about the regions within the Roman Empire?

Diocletian's distribution of power, which he implemented in the late 3rd century AD, suggests that the regions within the Roman Empire were becoming increasingly difficult to govern from a central location. To address this issue, Diocletian divided the Empire into four administrative regions, each with its own capital and governor.

What kinds of changes occurred in the Christian Church after the Edict of Milan?

It became a more centralized, bureaucratically governed organization -the more the Church adopted the bureaucratic structures of Roman government, the more it excluded women from power -The Church struggled to resolve doctrinal disputes by developing unified positions on theological questions

How, then, should Christians live in this new world and prepare for that imminent event? The men who forged answers to this question were contemporaries who knew and influenced one another, though they did not always agree. They are now regarded as saints and "fathers" of the Church, their names are

Jerome, Ambrose and Augustine

Historians have access to narratives of Jesus' life, written by his followers and other early Christians. How long after his execution (c. 30 C.E.) was the earliest-known narrative written and who wrote them?

Less than forty years, the earliest-known letters come from Paul of Tarsus {though he did not actually meet Jesus}

Many Greek philosophies gained large numbers of Roman adherents and shared several tenets, but the one that was instrumental in influencing Christian theology was:

Neoplatonism.

a Hellenized Jew who spread early Christianity to Gentiles

Paul

The key figure to develop this new understanding of Jesus's divinity was his younger contemporary _______

Paul of Tarsus (c.10- c. 67 C.E.).

The differences between the eastern and western parts of the Roman Empire after the transformation:

Political Differences: The Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire) became a more autocratic state, with the emperor holding absolute power and a strong centralized bureaucracy. In contrast, the Western Roman Empire experienced a breakdown of its centralized government and became a collection of smaller, decentralized states. Cultural Differences: The Byzantine Empire developed a unique blend of Greek, Roman, and Christian culture, which included the development of the Greek language and Eastern Orthodox Christianity. The Western Roman Empire, on the other hand, saw the emergence of new Germanic cultural and linguistic traditions, which eventually evolved into modern-day Romance languages. Religious Differences: The Byzantine Empire became the center of Eastern Orthodox Christianity, while the Western Roman Empire became the center of Roman Catholicism. These two branches of Christianity had different beliefs, practices, and rituals, which contributed to their distinct religious identities. Economic Differences: The Byzantine Empire had a more robust economy due to its location on the trade routes between Europe and Asia, with a focus on trade and commerce. In contrast, the Western Roman Empire experienced economic decline and stagnation due to political instability and invasions by barbarian tribes. Military Differences: The Byzantine Empire had a more sophisticated and professional military, with a focus on cavalry and the use of Greek Fire. In contrast, the Western Roman Empire had a more primitive and less professional military, which relied primarily on infantry.

the official attitude of the Roman state toward Christians was largely one of indifference because

There were not enough of them to matter, and few of them had any political power -During the first and second centuries C.E., therefore, Christians were tolerated by Roman officials, except when local magistrates chose to make an example of someone who flagrantly flouted authority

On the City of God was?

a new, Christian interpretation of human history by Augustine.

During the mid fourth century, a group of nomadic herdsmen known as the Huns began to migrate westward from central Asia, into the region north and east of the Black Sea. Around 370, their arrival forced:

a number of other groups, notably the Goths, to migrate south and west—and in a hurry. Within a few years, they had reached the Roman frontier along the Danube River (the Goths had been clients of the Roman state for several centuries, but now they were refugees, and too numerous and desperate to repel by force) -The Romans therefore permitted them to cross the Danube and settle within the empire. In return for food and other supplies, they were to guard the region against other migrant groups. Local officials, however, failed to uphold their end of the bargain. Instead, they forced the starving Goths to sell themselves and their children into slavery in return for food {in 378, the Goths revolted and the Roman army sent to suppress them was defeated at the battle of Adrianople}

By the middle of the second century, the Christian church at Rome had

a recognizable structure, headed by a bishop (in Greek, episcopos or "overseer") and lesser officeholders, including priests, deacons, confessors, and exorcists -Women were extremely prominent in these churches, not only as patrons and benefactors (a role Roman women often played in religious cults) but also as officeholders {This high status accorded to women was unusual: in other ancient religions, women could be priests and officeholders but only in cults open solely to women; they never took precedence over men}

In 251, a terrible plague, probably smallpox, swept through the empire's territories and recurred in some areas for

almost two decades, with an estimated 5,000 people dying every day in the crowded city, people sought local scapegoats -Christians were among those targeted. Beginning in the short reign of Decius, all Roman citizens were required to swear a public oath affirming their loyalty to Rome, which meant worshiping Rome's gods -Those who did so received a certificate testifying to this fact, which they had to produce on demand. Large numbers of Christians were implicated when this edict was put into effect. The enlightened policies of earlier emperors were abandoned

Jerome was primarily a scholar. Ambrose, by contrast, was

an aristocrat and man of the world who helped to define the relationship between the sacred authority of the punic purges of pagan communities.

After Christianity became legal under Constantine and his successors:

ascetic practices were widely adopted by both men and women. This was in part due to the idea that the physical world and bodily desires were seen as a hindrance to spiritual growth and salvation. Many Christians believed that by practicing asceticism, such as celibacy, fasting, and self-denial, they could purify their souls and draw closer to God. This led to the rise of monasticism in the Christian world, which was a way of life that emphasized strict discipline, prayer, and contemplation.

Theodoric was the son an Ostrogothic king who had been sent to Constantinople as a hostage and raised in the civilized surroundings of the imperial court. After a decade of fierce fighting, Theodoric and his imperially equipped Gothic army managed to

drive the Huns from Italy and establish an Ostrogothic kingdom based in Ravenna, which he ruled (with imperial support) until his death in 526.

After 476, the Roman emperor in Constantinople, Zeno, continued to

exercise limited influence over the government of the western Roman Empire (Theodoric, the Goth who ousted the Huns from Italy and ruled the West until 526, did so with the direction and support of him)

Aspiring emperors levied

exorbitant taxes on civilians in their provinces, while warfare among rival claimants and their armies destroyed crops and interrupted trade, causing food shortages (Because Rome itself was almost entirely dependant on Egyptian grain and other goods shipped in from the East, its inhabitants suffered accordingly. Poverty and famine led to a new form of slavery in Italy, as free artisans, local businessmen, and small farmers were forced to labor on the estates of large landholders in exchange for protection and food)

Apart from Jesus, Augustine is often considered the

greatest of all Christianity's founders (He may be the most important Christian thinker of all time) -His theology is essential to the doctrine of the medieval Church and thus to modern Catholicism, and it also had a profound effect on Martin Luther and on the development of Protestant Christianities

Caracalla's true successor was

his mother's sister, Julia Maesa, who ruled through Caracalla's nominal heir and cousin, her adolescent grandson, known as Heliogabalus (or Elagabalus, r. 218-22) because of his devotion to the Syrian sun god Ba'al -When Heliogabalus caused controversy by attempting to replace Jupiter, Rome's patron god, with a Latinized version of this eastern deity, Sol Invictus ("Invincible Sun"), his own grandmother engineered his assassination

Jerome's signal contribution to the culture of the West was

his translation of the Bible

Boethius devoted special attention to

logic, translating several of Aristotle's treatises from Greek into Latin

As seen in the life of Perpetua (young Christian martyr who lived in the Roman province of Africa during the 3rd century AD.), Christianity challenged the traditional Roman values of:

obedience to the Roman gods and one's ancestors -The Roman religion was an essential part of Roman identity, and its gods were believed to protect and guide the Roman people. However, Christianity rejected the Roman gods and claimed that there was only one God who was superior to all others. This belief system directly challenged the religious beliefs and practices of the Roman Empire and often led to persecution of Christians. -Furthermore, Christianity emphasized spiritual values such as humility, compassion, and forgiveness, which were often seen as weaknesses by Roman society, which valued strength, honor, and obedience to the state. This contrast contributed to the persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire, as their beliefs and practices were seen as a threat to the social and political order of the Roman world.

Under Constantine, Christianity became

one of many tolerated religions in the Empire. However, over time, Constantine favored Christianity and provided it with various privileges, such as exemption from certain taxes and legal protections, which helped it to grow in popularity and influence. Eventually, Christianity became the dominant religion in the Roman Empire, but it was not the only state-sanctioned religion during Constantine's reign

During the fourth century, relations between Romans and their non Roman neighbors were generally

peaceful, owing in part to the active presence of Constantius and Constantine in these territories but starting in the early fifth century, a new wave of settlers moved into the empire's oldest provinces, permanently altering their histories and cultures.

Ambrose argued that the motive and goal of human conduct should be

reverence for God, not social or political advancement - Also pleaded that God assists all Christians by sharing with them the power of divine grace, but extends more grace to some Christians than to others.

Rome was also coming under renewed pressure from its borders. Since the third century, the growing power of a new Persian dynasty, the Sassanids, had

shifted military weight to the eastern frontier, reducing the number of troops stationed elsewhere {partly as a result of this, the western empire suffered a devastating series of raids along the porous frontier of Germania}

To control the devastatingly high rates of inflation that were undermining the economy, Diocletian

stabilized the currency and attempted to fix prices and wages -He reformed the tax system and even moved the administrative capital of the empire from Italy to Nicomedia in the Roman province of Bithynia (modern Turkey) (Rome remained the symbolic capital of the empire, not least because the Senate continued to meet there but Diocletian had little need for the Senate's advice. The real power lay elsewhere)

Jesus is the central figure in Christianity, but Paul was important for

successfully arguing that Jewish religious laws need not apply to Christians, which allowed Christianity to become more universal and accessible to non-Jewish people -He was also instrumental in spreading Christianity throughout the Roman Empire through his missionary journeys and in writing letters to various Christian communities

what important concept did Paul champion, in opposition to other Jewish Christians, like Peter and James?

the concept of justification by faith (Prior to his conversion to Christianity, Paul was a devout Pharisee who believed that salvation was earned through adherence to the Law of Moses. However, after his encounter with Jesus on the road to Damascus, Paul's understanding of salvation changed dramatically. He came to believe that salvation was not earned through works, but was a free gift of God, received by faith in Jesus Christ. Paul's emphasis on justification by faith, as opposed to adherence to the Law of Moses, was a significant point of difference between him and other Jewish Christians. Peter and James, for example, continued to observe Jewish customs and traditions, and believed that Gentile converts should do the same. Paul, on the other hand, argued that Gentile converts did not need to follow Jewish customs, and that salvation was available to all people, regardless of their ethnicity or background, through faith in Jesus Christ)

The earliest writings that mention Jesus specifically are

the letters of his follower, Paul of Tarsus -These are closely followed by many different narratives of Jesus's life and teachings, most written between c. 70 and 100 C.E -Four such accounts were eventually included in the New Testament, a collection of Christian writings appended to the Greek text of the Hebrew Bible around the third century C.E.

Severus largely ignored

the politics of the Senate and slighted what remained of its powers {He preferred to rule through the army, which he reorganized and expanded} -Two of his reforms had long term consequences. The first was a drastic raise in army pay, probably as much as 100 percent, which had the effect of securing the soldiers' absolute loyalty and diminishing their need to augment their wages through plunder. The other was a relaxation of the longstanding rule forbidding soldiers to marry while still in service.

Pilate's main concern was

to preserve peace during a volatile religious festival. He also knew that his authority depended on maintaining good relations with local Jewish elites and with Herod, a recent convert to Judaism who ruled the province of Galilee in collaboration with Rome, as a client king of the empire -Because Jesus was a resident of Galilee, not a citizen of Roman Judea, Pilate sent Jesus to Herod for sentencing. But Herod sent him back to Pilate, politely indicating that dealing with Jesus fell under Roman jursidiction. So Pilate chose to make an example of Jesus by condemning him to death by crucifixion, the standard criminal penalty for those judged guilty of sedition. It had been rumored that Jesus planned to lead a rebellion

Jerome's translation of the Bible was

vigorous, colloquial, and clear -its powerful prose and poetry would influence Latin authors for a thousand years. Jerome was also an influential commentator on the Bible's interpretation, encouraging readings that emphasized a passage's symbolic or allegorical significance, as well as its literal or historical meaning -He was among the first to argue that pagan learning could and should be studied by Christians, so long as it was thoroughly adapted to Christian aims

The disruptions of the mid third century exposed

weaknesses in economic and administrative infrastructures (inflation, caused by the devaluation of currency under Severus, nearly drained Roman coinage of its value)