Ch. 7 Rome's Three Heirs, 500-950

What was the role of Tribonian in the legal reforms of Justinian's reign, and what were the main features of the Code, Novels, Digest, and Institutes produced by the commission he oversaw?

-Justinian appointed a team of lawyers under the supervision of a jurist called Tribonian. Within two years, this commission published the first result of its labors: the Code, a systematic compilation of imperial statutes which was later supplemented by another book, the Novels (Novellae, "new laws"), containing the legislation of Justinian and his immediate successors. ---By 532 the commission had also completed the Digest, a summary of the writings of Rome's great legal authorities, including the jurists of the Principate. The final product was the Institutes, a textbook of legal principles

To what extent did Justinian view himself as the heir to the Augustan Principate, and how did the involvement of his influential wife, Theodora, contribute to his reign?

A student of history, Justinian saw himself as the heir to the Principate established by Augustus, and like Augustus he was aided by an astute and determined wife, Theodora, who played an influential role in his reign. Although his efforts ultimately failed, they had a lasting influence on the entire Mediterranean world

What was Pepin's strategy for seizing the Frankish throne, and what role did the Frankish bishops and the pope play in this process? How did Pepin's support of the Benedictines help him in his bid for the Frankish throne, and what were some of the larger political and military considerations at play during this period?

Although Charles never sought to become king himself, he was so clearly the effective ruler of Gaul that the Franks did not bother to choose a new king when the reigning Merovingian died in 737. But then Charles himself died in 741, and his sons inman and Pepin were forced to allow the election of a new king while they continued to exercise power behind the scenes. This compromise did not last long, however; in 750 Carloman had withdrawn from public life by entering a monastery, and Pepin decided to seize the throne for himself ---This turned out to be harder than he may have expected. Even though the reigning king was ineffectual, Frankish identity was bound up with loyalty to Clovis's descendants. Even though tribal leaders had the power to elect a new king, they were reluctant to do so. Pepin therefore turned to the Frankish bishops, who were unwilling to support him without backing from the pope. To gain this, Pepin was able to trade on his family's support of the Benedictines. The pope, for his part, saw that a powerful leader of the Franks could be a potential ally in his political struggle with the Byzantine emperors over iconoclasm (which the papacy opposed) and in his military struggle against the Lombard kings for control of central Italy.

How did Byzantine education and intellectual life reflect a connection to the Hellenistic past and classical Greek literature, and how did this compare to attitudes towards classical learning in Western Europe?

Although religion was central to the identity of Romans in Byzantium, so was their direct link with the Hellenistic past and the heritage of ancient Greece. Byzantine schools based their instruction on classical Greek literature to a degree that might seem surprising given the more tentative attitude toward classical learning in western Europe. Byzantine scholars also studied the philosophy of Plato and the historical prose of Thucydides intensively.

What factor contributed to the instability of power in the world during the mass migrations of the fifth and sixth centuries?

Another factor contributing to the instability of power in this world was the difficulty of ensuring its peaceful transfer. The rulers who established themselves during the mass migrations of the fifth and sixth centuries did not come from the traditional royal families of their peoples, and thus they faced opposition from many of their own warriors. Moreover, the groups who took possession of territories within the Western Roman Empire during these years were rarely (if ever) composed of a single affinity group; they were usually made up of many different tribes, including a sizable number of displaced Romans.

What were the consequences of the Arab conquests for the Byzantine Empire, and how did they impact the empire's control over its territories and trade routes?

Arab armies, inspired by the new religion of Islam, were able to profit from the empire's exhaustion. They soon occupied the newly reconquered Byzantine territories and claimed Jerusalem as a holy site for Muslims, too. They also absorbed the entire Persian Empire and rapidly made their way westward to North Africa. They then took to the sea, and in 677 attempted a naval conquest of Constantinople

How did Justinian's policies impact the survival of the Eastern Roman Empire, and what challenges did the Greek-speaking imperial dynasty? Additionally, how did the Persians' conquest of eastern and southern territories play out? Explain how did Heraclius lead a significant military effort to recover these

As a result of Justinian's policies, however, this new Rome was struggling for survival. By 610 the Greek-speaking imperial dynasty that began with Heraclius (r. 610-41) was unable to extend its influence farther west than the Adriatic. Meanwhile, the Persians had conquered almost all of the empire's eastern and southern territories in Syria and Palestine. They had even plundered Jerusalem and carried off a precious relic believed to be part of the original cross on which Jesus had been crucified. With an enormous effort, Heraclius rallied his remaining military powers and routed the Persians, recapturing Jerusalem and retrieving the relic in 627.

What were some of the consequences of the decline of agricultural land and the increasing independence of slaves and servile peasants in the Mediterranean world?

At the same time, much agricultural land was passing out of cultivation. The slaves or servile peasants who had farmed the large plantations for hundreds of years had no state to enforce their obedience; they were able to become more independent—yet they were also less effective, working just a few acres by themselves. Productivity declined, as did revenues from tolls and taxes.

What is the difference between Sunni and Shi'ite Muslims, and what led to the formation of these two distinct groups within Islam?

Because Ali's followers, however, did not accept defeat, they formed a separate group known as the Shi'ites (from shi'a, the Arabic word for "faction"). The Shi'ites insisted that only descendants of Ali and his wife, Muhammad's daughter Fatimah, could legitimately rule the Muslim community. Moreover, the Shi'ites did not accept the customary religious practices (sunna) that had developed under the first two caliphs who succeeded Muhammad—his father-in-law Abu-Bakr and his disciple Umar, hence those Muslims who supported the Umayyad family and who did regard these customs as binding were called Sunnis.

How did BENEDICTINE MONASTICISM contribute to the economy of western Europe and how was it linked to politics?

Benedictine monasteries in medieval Europe played multifaceted roles, serving as economic, educational, and political hubs. They significantly contributed to agriculture by employing advanced techniques like crop rotation and irrigation, thereby increasing productivity. Monasteries engaged in various industries, including brewing, weaving, and metalworking, producing goods like textiles, tools, and weapons for trade. These monastic institutions preserved and propagated knowledge through their scholarship, copying ancient texts and creating new works. Monks often doubled as healthcare providers for local communities. Moreover, they had political clout, enjoying patronage from kings and nobles in exchange for spiritual guidance and services, leading to considerable political influence. The Benedictine order also played a role in shaping the concept of the "divine right of kings," reinforcing the link between the Catholic Church and medieval European politics.

What were the causes of the disintegration of the Mediterranean world by about 650, and what were the most significant causes of economic instability in northwestern Europe?

By about 650, however, this Mediterranean world became more disintegrated. This was partly a result of Justinian's failed efforts to reconquer the Western empire, but imperial overtaxation of agricultural land, especially in Egypt and North Africa, also played a role. So did the temporary disruptions to traditional trade routes caused by Muslim raiders—temporary, because the merchants and rulers of Islam would soon do much to reconstruct and encourage patterns of commerce. ---The most significant causes of economic instability in northwestern Europe were therefore internal, not external. The cities of Italy, Gaul, and Hispania could no longer maintain their walls, their public buildings, and their urban infrastructures as they had done under the Roman Empire.

What were the consequences of the breakdown of the coinage systems in western Europe and the shift from a gold to a silver-based economy in the 660s?

By the 660s, those western European rulers who were still in a position to mint coins and guarantee their value had shifted from a gold to a silver coinage. Indeed, Europe would remain a silver-based economy for the next thousand years, until the supply of gold from European conquests in Africa and America once again made a gold standard viable. As a result of these processes, western Europe came to rely on a two-tier economy of a kind that had not been necessary in any Western civilization since the Lydians introduced a standardized currency in the sixth century B.C.E.

How did the end of the eighth century mark a significant shift in the religious and political landscape, with the control of the Iberian Peninsula and Al-Andalus transitioning into the hands of different religious groups?

By the end of the eighth century, Christian rulers controlled only the northernmost parts of the Iberian peninsula, and Al-Andalus (Muslim Spain) became part of a new Islamic world.

How did the expansion of Muslim commerce in the tenth century influence trade networks and the spread of Islamic culture, and what were some of the key industries and products that contributed to the economic prosperity of the Muslim world during this period?

By the tenth century, Muslim merchants had penetrated into southern Russia and equatorial Africa and had become masters of the caravan routes that led eastward to India and China. Ships from the Muslim world established new trade routes across the Indian Ocean, the Persian Gulf, and the Caspian Sea, and for a time dominated the Mediterranean as well. ---The growth of Muslim commerce in this period was also driven and sustained by a number of important new industries. Mosul, in Iraq, was a center for the manufacture of cotton cloth, Baghdad specialized in glassware, jewelry, pottery, and silk. Damascus was famous for its fine steel and for its woven-figured silk known as "damask". Morocco and Al-Andalus were both noted for leather-working, Toledo produced excellent swords Drugs, perfumes, carpets, tapestries, brocades, woolens, satins, metal goods, and a host of other products turned out by Muslim artisans were carried throughout the Mediterranean world by Muslim merchants. They were also carried into central Asia, along the road to China that came to be known as the Silk Road, after the most prized commodity for which these goods were traded. With them went the Islamic faith, which took root among some peoples of modern India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan.

What territories did the Vikings control by the tenth century, and what was their impact on England?

By the tenth century, the Vikings controlled independent principalities in eastern England, Ireland, the islands of Scotland, the region of France that is still called Norseman-land, Normandy. The Viking people known as the Rus' established the beginnings of a kingdom that would become Russia. At the end of the tenth century, Vikings ventured farther west and colonized Iceland, Greenland, and a distant territory they called Vinland (Newfoundland, Canada). In 1016 a Viking army placed a Danish king on the English throne

How did Byzantine education and intellectual life differ from that of Western Europe and what were some of the notable achievements of women in Byzantine society?

Byzantine classicism and learning were the products of an educational system that extended to the laity and was open to women as well as to men. Byzantine commitment to the formal education of women was especially unusual. Although most girls from aristocratic or prosperous families were educated at home by private tutors, they nevertheless mingled freely with their male counterparts at court or on social occasions, and many learned women were praised for being able to discourse like Plato or Pythagoras. There were also female physicians in the Byzantine Empire, another extraordinary departure both from ancient tradition and from the practices of western Europe until the latter part of the nine-teenth century.

What was the contribution of Charlemagne and his court to the cultural and intellectual life of western Europe, and how did they achieve it?

Charlemagne and his son Louis the Pious considered it a crucial part of their role to be patrons of learning and the arts. In doing so, they created an ideal of the court as an intellectual and cultural center that would profoundly influence western European cultural life until the First World War. Charlemagne therefore recruited intellectuals from all over Europe. Foremost among these was the Anglo-Saxon monk Alcuin, whose command of classical Latin established him as the intellectual leader of Charlemagne's court. ---Under Alcuin's direction, Carolingian scholars produced much original Latin poetry and an impressive number of theological and pastoral tracts. But their primary efforts were devoted to collating, correcting, and recopying classical Latin texts, including, most importantly, the text of the Latin Bible, which had accumulated many generations of copyists' mistakes in the four hundred years since Jerome's translation. To detect and correct these errors, Alcuin and his associates gathered as many different versions of the biblical text as they could find and compared them, word by word. After determining the correct version among all the variants, they made a new, corrected copy and destroyed the other versions. ---They also developed a new style of handwriting, with simplified letter forms and spaces inserted between words that reduced the likelihood that subsequent copyists would misread the corrected texts. Reading was further facilitated by the addition of punctuation. This new style of handwriting, known as Carolingian miniscule, is the foundation for the typefaces of most modern books—including this one.

What best describes Charlemagne's system of governance?

Charlemagne delegated some military and judicial tasks to his comites, but he also established a bureaucracy to oversee matters of justice and taxation

How did Charlemagne's use of special messengers, the missi, and his system of governance contribute to his effective rule, and what influence did it have on the development of administrative systems in Europe for centuries to come?

Charlemagne did not rely on the written word alone to make his will felt. Periodically, his court sent special messengers, known as missi, on tours through the countryside to relay his instructions and report back on the conduct of local administrators. This was the most thorough system of governance known in Europe since the height of the Roman Empire, reaching many parts of the Continent that the Romans had never occupied. It set the standard for royal administration in Europe for centuries.

What changes did Charlemagne make to the liturgy of Frankish churches and the rules of worship in Frankish monasteries, and what basic Christian observances did he impose on the conquered peoples of Saxony?

Charlemagne was able to appoint and depose bishops and abbots, just as he did his counts and other officials. But he also changed the liturgy of Frankish churches, reformed the rules of worship in Frankish monasteries, declared changes in basic statements of Christian belief, prohibited pagan practices, and imposed basic Christian observances on the conquered peoples of Saxony.

How did CHARLEMAGNE build an empire, and how did the CAROLINGIAN RENAISSANCE revive and extend CLASSICAL LEARNING?

Charlemagne's empire-building was a dynamic fusion of military conquests, diplomatic collaborations, and administrative reforms. Inheriting the Frankish Kingdom from his father, he expanded its domain across regions now comprising France, Germany, Italy, and Spain, forming the formidable Carolingian Empire. Beyond his military prowess and alliances with fellow rulers, Charlemagne's administrative enhancements, such as standardizing measures and introducing the Capitulary of Aachen for uniform laws, bolstered his realm's stability. The Carolingian Renaissance, thriving under his reign, ushered in a resurgence of classical learning, promoting the preservation and expansion of ancient Greek and Roman knowledge. Charlemagne's patronage of education, library and school establishments, and scholarly translation efforts laid the groundwork for future intellectual and cultural achievements, marking a crucial chapter in the development of a shared European culture and identity.

What was Charles Martel's role in the history of the Frankish kingdom and what event is often cited as the basis for his claim to be the second founder of the kingdom after Clovis?

Charles Martel is sometimes considered the second founder (after Clovis) of the Frankish kingdom. His claim to this title is twofold. First, in 733 or 734 he repelled a Muslim force that had ventured into Frankish territory, meeting them in battle at Tours, some 150 miles from the Merovingian capital at Paris.

What was the nature of Charles' alliance with Benedictine missionaries from England, and how did it help him in his efforts to reform and control Frankish churches?

Charles had developed an alliance with Benedictine missionaries from England, who were attempting to convert the Low Countries and central Germany to Christianity. Charles' family had long been active in the drive to conquer and settle these areas, and he understood clearly how missionary work and Frankish expansion could go hand in hand. Charles assisted these conversion efforts. In return, the leader of the English Benedictines, Boniface (c. 672-754), brought him into contact with the papacy and assisted him in his efforts to reform—and control Frankish churches.

How did the spread of Christianity in North Africa decline, leading to the survival of a thriving Christian community in Ethiopia? What were the lingering tensions between Arian Visigoths and their Latin subjects, even after the official conversion of the Visigothic king in 587, and how did this dynamic eventually contribute to the absorption of the Visigothic kingdom by Islam? z

Christianity in North Africa largely disappeared, although a vibrant Christian community continued to flourish in Ethiopia. Meanwhile, tensions between Arian Visigoths and their Latin subjects continued even after after the Visigothic king officially converted in 587. This mutual hostility would subsist until the Visigothic kingdom, too, was largely absorbed by Islam.

How did the advent of the Abbasid caliphate impact the cultural and political landscape of Europe, particularly in Byzantium and Gaul? What were some of the key diplomatic and commercial relationships that developed between the Abbasids and European powers, and how did they impact trade and the exchange of goods and resources?

For the inhabitants of Byzantium, the triumph of the Abbasid caliphate in the eighth century released the Mediterranean from an empire, which had a lasting effect on the culture and politics of Europe the pressures of Umayyad expansion. Farther west, the Franks of Gaul also benefited from the advent of the Abbasids. Because an Umayyad dynasty still controlled Al-Andalus, the great Frankish ruler Charlemagne (SHAHR-leh-mayn, r. 768-814) could counter their power by maintaining strong diplomatic and commercial relations with the Abbasid caliphate. The most famous symbol of this connection was an elephant called Abul Abbas, a gift from Harun al-Rashid to Charlemagne ---More important, however, was the flow of silver that found its way from the Abbasid Empire north through Russia and the Baltic into the Rhineland, where it was exchanged for Frankish exports of furs, wax, honey, leather, and especially slaves—western Europeans who were captured and sold for profit by other western Europeans. Through these channels, jewels, silks, spices, and other luxury goods from India and the Far East also flowed north and west into Frankish territory

What were the factors that contributed to the breakdown of the Carolingian Empire?

Frustrated by their new emperor's inability to reward them, the Frankish aristocracy turned against Louis and on each other. Smoldering hostilities between Austrasians, Neustrians, and Aquitanians—which Charlemagne had stifled by directing their energies elsewhere—flared up again. As centralized authority broke down, the vast majority of the empire's free inhabitants found themselves increasingly dominated by local lords who treated them as if they were unfree serfs. At the same time, internal troubles in the Abbasid Empire caused a breakdown in the commercial system through which Scandinavian traders brought Abbasid silver into Carolingian domains. Deprived of their livelihood, these traders turned to raiding, which is what the Norse word "Viking" means. Under these combined pressures, the Carolingian Empire fell apart, and a new political map of Europe began to emerge.

What were some factors that contributed to the growth of the population and the improvement of agriculture in Frankish Gaul during the seventh century and how did this contribute to the overall prosperity of the region?

Gradually warming weather also improved the fertility of the wet northern soils, lengthening the growing season and so making possible more efficient crop-rotation systems. As food became more plentiful, the population began to expand. Although much of Frankish Gaul remained a land of scattered settlements separated by dense forests, it was far more populous by 750 than it had been in the time of Clovis. All these developments would continue during the reign of Charlemagne and beyond

How did Charlemagne exercise direct power over the Christian Church?

He made rules about the conduct of monks in monasteries, supervised the election of new popes, and appointed local religious officials.

What was the official policy of the Church toward Jews during Gregory's time, and how did it evolve over time?

He was among the first theologians to articulate the Church's official policy toward the Jews, which became increasingly strident: building on Gregory's example, later popes would insist that the Jews' alleged role in Christ's crucifixion and their denial of his divinity had deprived them of their rights in a Christian world

What were some of the key military conquests and campaigns undertaken by the Byzantine Empire under Justinian I, and what were the implications of these campaigns for the empire's resources and stability?

In 533, Justinians general, Belisarius conquered the Vandal kingdom of northwest Africa, thereby facilitating campaigns in Ostrogothic Italy and Visigothic Spain. By 536 Belisarius appeared poised to occupy Rome's old homeland, where he was welcomed as a savior by the former subjects of the Ostrogoths. But these early victories were illusory ---When Justinian died in 565, the Mediterranean was under Roman control but the human and financial costs of these campaigns had drastically strained imperial resources. Belisarius's army in Italy was overextended, and Justinian's need to levy soldiers had led to oppressive taxes on vitally important regions like Egypt and Syria, which undermined support for his imperial project.

What was the Justinianic Plague, and how did it impact the regions it affected in the 6th century C.E.? Additionally, what recent findings have epidemiologists and geneticists uncovered about the pandemic, particularly in relation to its connection to the Black Death?

In 541-542 C.E., an outbreak of the Justinianic Plague devastated communities across a vast region. Historians now believe that in addition to devastating Rome and Persia, the plague extended to Scandinavia in the north and far into Africa in the south. The initial outbreak is believed to have killed around 25 million people; According to recent findings by epidemiologists and geneticists, this pandemic was caused by an early strain of the same virus that later spawned the terrible Black Death

What was the role of Pepin and his son Charles Martel in the Merovingian kingdom?

In 687 he succeeded in forcing his way into power by making himself the king's right-hand man. He took the title maior domus, "big man of the house," and began to exercise royal authority while maintaining the fiction that he was merely a royal servant. He did this effectively for more than twenty-five years and after his death, his illegitimate son Charles Martel ("the Hammer," 688-741) further consolidated control over both the Merovingian homeland and the royal administration. For the next two generations, the Merovingian kings were largely figureheads in a realm ruled by Charles Martel and his sons.

What were the major factors that contributed to the decline and eventual disappearance of the Abbasid Empire?

In 909, regional and religious hostilities came together when a local Shi'ite dynasty known as the Fatimids, seized control of the Abbasid province of North Africa. In 969 the Fatimids succeeded in conquering Egypt also. Meanwhile, another Shi'ite group, rivals of both the Fatimids and the Abbasids, attacked Baghdad in 927 and Mecca in 930, seizing the Kaaba. Although an Abbasid caliphate continued to exist in Baghdad until 1258, when invading Mongol armies dispatched it, the Abbasid Empire had effectively disappeared by the 930s. In its place a new order began to emerge in the eastern Muslim world, centered around an independent Egyptian kingdom and a new Muslim state based in Persia.

What were the external pressures faced by the Umayyad dynasty in Al-Andalus, and how did they add to the internal difficulties of the caliphate?

In Al-Andalus, disputes over succession within the Umayyad dynasty were matched by new external pressures new external pressures. Beginning in the mid-ninth century, the small Christian kingdoms of northern and eastern Iberia began to encroach on Muslim territory, increasing the internal difficulties of the Umayyad caliphate.

What were the arguments of the Iconoclasts regarding the use of religious images in Byzantium, and why were their views so contentious?

In Byzantium, where the veneration of icons was an especially potent part of daily devotion, any suggestion that such images should be suppressed or destroyed was bound to be contentious. But that is precisely what the Iconoclasts advocated. They argued that honoring images was blasphemous because nothing made by human beings should be worshiped, an injunction expressed in the Ten Commandments given to Moses (Exodus 20:4)

How did Vikings contribute to the European economy during the Viking Age?

In Ireland and eastern England, Vikings founded a series of new towns. As long-distance traders, Vikings transported large quantities of silver into western Europe, fueling the European economy

Justinian's attempted reunification of the Roman Empire proved destructive. What were its effects in the East and in the West?

In the Eastern Roman Empire, Justinian's initial successes in reclaiming former Roman territories, such as North Africa, Italy, and parts of Spain, were overshadowed by the unsustainable cost of these military campaigns. These conquests drained resources, weakened the military, and left the empire vulnerable to external threats. The heavy taxes imposed to fund these efforts led to widespread dissatisfaction among the population, and the reconquest caused significant destruction and displacement. In the West, Justinian's reconquest had little lasting impact, as the territories proved difficult to hold, and the Gothic kingdoms in Italy and Spain were firmly established by the time of his campaigns.

What was the role of the Arabs in establishing themselves as guides, couriers, and guardians of transit routes between Africa and Asia in the second half of the sixth century, and how did this process lead to the emergence of towns, including the prominent town of Mecca, which lay at the crossroads of major caravan routes?

In the second half of the sixth century, when protracted wars between Byzantium and Persia made travel too dangerous for merchants, the Arabs quickly established themselves as guides, couriers, and guardians of transit routes between Africa and Asia As part of this process, towns began to emerge. The most prominent of these was Mecca, an ancient sacred site that lay at the crossroads of major caravan routes

What are the similarities and differences between Islam and the early Roman Republic and how did the role of the Islamic faith in imperial expansion differ from the role of Christianity in the Roman Empire?

Islam (Arabic for "submission") also resembles the early republic of Rome, in that it demands from its followers not just adherence to common forms of worship but also to certain social and cultural norms. But whereas the Roman Empire undergirded Christianity and elevated it to the status of a major faith by legalizing it, the Islamic faith was itself the engine of imperial expansion.

What is the Islamic belief regarding the Day of Judgment and how does it impact the fundamental choice that every person is offered between beginning a new life of divine service or following their own path?

Islam teaches that a day of judgment is coming—and soon. On this day, the righteous will be granted eternal life in a paradise of delights, but wrongdoers will be damned to a realm of eternal fire. Every person is therefore offered a fundamental choice: to begin a new life of divine service or to follow their own path. If they choose to follow God, they will be blessed, if they do not, God will turn away from them. Thus the only sure means of achieving salvation is observance of the Five Pillars of the faith

What were the key factors that contributed to the rapid expansion of Islamic forces into North Africa, Spain, and other regions, and what challenges did they face in the process?

Islamic forces turned westward toward North Africa, capturing Byzantine Egypt by 646 and extending their control throughout the rest of North Africa during the following decades. Attempts to capture Constantinople in 677 and 717 were not successful, as we noted earlier, but in 711 the Arabs crossed from North Africa into Visigothic Spain and quickly absorbed most of that territory, too. Within less than a century, the forces of Islam had conquered the ancient Near East and much of the Roman Mediterranean, while the desert-dwelling Arabs had transformed themselves into the world's most daring seafarers.

What important precedents were established when Boniface had Pepin anointed king of the Franks?

It broadened the Pope's role in legitimizing European political leaders and it emphasized the less-than-absolute power of medieval kings.

Which was Rome's true successor?

It depends on the criteria used to make this evaluation. If imperial Rome's most fundamental characteristics were the maintenance of legal and political institutions, the answer is Byzantium. If one is looking for a civilization that combines the rich legacies of the ancient Near East, Egypt, and the Hellenistic world, the answer is Islam, which also emulated Rome in promoting commerce and cultural exchange. If one associates Rome chiefly with the city itself and the Latin language of the first Romans, or with the Christian patriarch of Rome, the answer is northwestern Europe.

How did Justinian's military campaigns lead to the withdrawal of Byzantine troops from Italy and North Africa?

Justinian's campaigns also distracted attention from dangers closer to Constantinople, in particular, the developing strength of Persia under the Sassanid dynasty. To respond to the Persians' advances, Justinian's successors were eventually forced to withdraw their troops from Italy and North Africa. This left both regions dangerously exposed to further invasions and yet still failed to guarantee the safety of the eastern frontier. Only a heroic reorganization of the empire's resources after 610 saved Constantinople, but it put an end to Justinian's dream of reunification

What happened as a result of Justinian's wars?

Justinian's wars proved more devastating to Italy than the previous incursions of barbarian peoples. Around Rome, the vital supply lines of the aqueducts were cut and the elaborate system of conduits, drainage ditches, and reservoirs were destroyed. Parts of the Italian countryside returned to marshland, and some areas would not be drained again until the twentieth century. In 568 a new people, the Lombards, took advantage of the chaos to conquer the northern third of the peninsula. Thereafter, Italy would be divided between Lombard territories in the north and imperial territories in the southeast, with Rome and its region precariously sandwiched between them. Constantinople's control over North Africa lasted only a few generations longer. Weakened by religious conflict and heavy taxation, this area fell easily to invading Muslims in the seventh century, along with Egypt and the rest of Roman Africa

What were some of the challenges that Louis the Pious faced in holding together his father's empire after Charlemagne's death?

Louis faced an impossible situation of a kind we have studied many times before, the task of holding together an artificial constellation of territories united by someone else. Charlemagne's empire had been built on successful conquest. By 814, however, Charlemagne had pushed the borders of his empire beyond the practical limits of his administration. To the southwest, he now faced the Umayyad rulers of Al-Andalus; to the north, the pagan inhabitants of Scandinavia; and in the east, his armies were too preoccupied with settling the territories they had already conquered to secure the Slavic lands that lay beyond

How did the Byzantine arts and learning influence the craftsmen and scholars of Western Europe through New Rome's economic and cultural contact with Italy, as reflected in the basilica of San Marco in Venice (c. 1063) and medieval mosaics in cities like Ravenna and Palermo?

Many aspects of Byzantine arts and learning exerted strong influence on the craftsmen and scholars of western Europe through New Rome's continued economic and cultural contact with portions of Italy. The basilica of San Marco in Venice (c. 1063) reflects this influence, as do medieval mosaics in such cities as Ravenna and Palermo.

How did the Umayyad dynasty in Al-Andalus maintain its claim as the legitimate successor to Muhammad, and what were the key dynamics of the cultural and literary competition between the Umayyads and the Abbasids?

Meanwhile, the Umayyad dynasty continued to rule in Spain and continued to claim that it was the only legitimate successor of Muhammad. Relations between the Umayyads of Al-Andalus and Abbasids of Persia were therefore very cold; but because their realms were far apart, the hostility between them rarely erupted into war. Instead, the two courts competed for preeminence through literary and cultural patronage, much as the Hellenistic kingdoms had done. Philosophers, artists, and especially poets flocked to both

What role did monasteries play in the economic development of Merovingian Gaul during the seventh century?

Monasteries grew remarkably during the seventh century and became the engines that made Merovingian Gaul wealthier and more stable than other regions of northwestern Europe. Approximately 550 monasteries were thriving by the year 700, more than 300 of which had been established in the preceding century alone. This massive redistribution of wealth reflected a fundamental shift in the economic gravity of the Frankish kingdom In the year 600, the wealth of Gaul was still concentrated in the south, where it had been throughout the late Roman period. Behind this shift in prosperity lay a long and successful effort to bring under cultivation the rich, heavy soils of northern Europe. This effort was largely engineered by the new monasteries, which harnessed the peasant workforce and pioneered agricultural technologies adapted to the climate and terrain.

What were the historical implications of Charlemagne's coronation as emperor by Pope Leo III in the year 800, and how did it shape the relationship between future popes and the Holy Roman Empire?

On Christmas Day in the year 800, Charlemagne was crowned emperor by Pope Leo III. Centuries later, popes would cite this epochal event as precedent for the political superiority they claimed over the "Holy Roman Empire," as it came to be called. In the year 800, however, Pope Leo was entirely under Charlemagne's thumb. Charlemagne's biographer, Einhard, would later claim that the coronation was planned without the emperor's knowledge

What role did monasteries play in the economic and social development of Merovingian Gaul during the seventh century?

Most monastic foundations of the seventh century were deliberately located in rural areas, where they played a crucial role. Frequently, these new foundations were double monasteries that accommodated women as well as men. Often they were established for women only. In either case, they were often ruled by abbesses drawn from noble or royal families. Monasticism thus became a road to political power for women. It also gave women—commoners as well as queens—freedoms they did not have elsewhere, or at any other time in history up to this point. Within the monastery, women had more control over their own minds and bodies. They could wield enormous influence, promoting their families' diplomatic and dynastic interests but without the dangers and uncertainties of pregnancy. And they were also guaranteed salvation, at a time when salvation outside the cloister seemed a perilously uncertain prospect

How did the early leadership transition in Islam take place after Muhammad's death, with Abu-Bakr and Umar emerging as key figures? In what capacity did Abu-Bakr serve, and how did he undertake a campaign to establish his authority as Muhammad's successor?

Muhammad's closest followers were his father-in-law, Abu-Bakr (ah-BOO-BAK-uhr), and an early convert named Umar. After Muhammad's death, these two men took the initiative by naming Abu-Bakr caliph, a word meaning "deputy" or "representative." In this capacity, Abu-Bakr began a campaign to subdue various tribes that had been loyal to Muhammad but were not willing to accept his own authority as Muhammad's successor. In the course of this, Abu-Bakr's forces began to move northward beyond the borders of Arabia, where they met only minimal resistance from Byzantine and Persian armies.

What is the significance of Muhammad's teachings in Islam and how are they preserved in the sacred scripture of the religion, the Qu'ran?

Muhammad's teachings are essential because they establish the rituals and practices that help to ensure salvation. These teachings are preserved in the sacred scripture of Islam, the Qu'ran (kuhr-AHN), an Arabic word meaning "recitations."

To what extent did the teachings of Muhammad promote social mobility in the Islamic world, and how did this impact the opportunities available to talented individuals in societies such as Baghdad and Córdoba?

Muhammad's teachings further encouraged social mobility because the Qu'ran stressed the equality of all Muslim men. At the courts of Baghdad and Córdoba, therefore, careers were open to men of talent, regardless of birth or wealth. Because literacy was remarkably widespread, many could rise through education and achieve top offices through enterprise and skill.

What role did Muslims play in the development and spread of papermaking technology, and how did the widespread use of paper impact the Islamic world and beyond?

Muslims learned papermaking from the Chinese and became became masters of the art in their own right. By the end of the eighth century, Baghdad alone had more than a hundred shops where blank paper or books written on paper were sold. Paper was cheaper to produce, easier to store, and far easier to use than papyrus or parchment. As a result, paper replaced papyrus in the Islamic world by the early eleventh century—even in Egypt, the heartland of papyrus production for almost 4,000 years.

What made the Merovingian dynasty unique compared to other groups that established kingdoms in western Europe during the fifth and sixth centuries?

Of all the groups that set up kingdoms in western Europe during the fifth and sixth centuries, only the Franks succeeded in establishing a single dynasty from which leaders would be drawn for the next 250 years. This dynasty reached back to Clovis (r.481-511), a warrior-king, who established an alliance between his family and the powerful bishops of Gaul by converting to Roman Christianity—emulating the example of Constantine on many levels. Clovis's family came to be known as the Merovingians, after his legendary grandfather Merovech, who was said to have been sired by a sea monster (meaning, in effect, that no one really knew who Clovis's grandfather was)

What is the significance of the Shi'ite branch of Islam, and where do they predominate in the world today?

Often persecuted by the Sunni majority as heretics, Shi'ites consider themselves the only true exponents of Islam. Today, Shi'ites predominate in Iran and are the largest single Muslim group in Iraq, yet they constitute only one-tenth of the world's Muslims.

What were Pope Gregory I's contributions to the development of the Latin Church, and how did he seek to create a more autonomous church in the West?

Pope Gregory I, also known as Gregory the Great, was the first bishop of Rome to envision a new role for the papacy in northwestern Europe. We have seen that the Roman "papa" frequently asserted his superiority over other patriarchs; but in reality, he was subordinate to the emperors in Constantinople and to the greater prestige of the Christian East. As Byzantine power in Italy declined, however, Gregory sought to create a more autonomous Latin Church by focusing attention on the untapped resources of the wild West. Among his doctrinal contributions were an emphasis on the necessity of penance for the forgiveness of sins and the concept of Purgatory as a place where the soul could be purified before it was admitted into Heaven—instead of being sent immediately to perpetual damnation. ---Alongside this emphasis on penance, Gregory emphasized the importance of pastoral care: the proper instruction and encouragement of the laity. He also sought to increase the affective power of Christian worship by promoting the performance of music. Song has always been essential to religious ritual, but Gregory encouraged it to such a degree that the very style of singing that emerged in this period is known as "Gregorian chant."

What were the main reasons that led Viking raiders to turn to plunder, ransom, tribute collection, and slaving?

Scandinavian traders were already familiar figures in the North Sea and Baltic ports of Europe when Charlemagne came to power. They had begun to establish strategic settlements in what is now Russia, from which they navigated down the rivers to Byzantium (through the Black Sea) and the Abbasid caliphate (through the Caspian Sea). But when the power of the Abbasids declined, Viking raiders turned to plunder, ransom, tribute collection, and slaving. At first, these were small-scale operations. But soon, some Viking attacks involved organized armies numbering in the thousands. The small tribal kingdoms of the Anglo-Saxons and Celts made the British Isles easy targets, as were the the kingdoms of divided Franks

What were some of the long-lasting effects of the Iconoclast Controversy?

The Iconoclast Controversy was resolved toward the end of the eighth century, and in favor of the iconodules, the promoters of religious imagery. But it had some long-lasting effects which one was the unfortunate fact that much of the art produced or preserved in Byzantium was destroyed by imperial edict. This means that examples of Christian artistry from these first eight centuries are very rare and can be found only in Italy, Palestine, or Egypt, which were beyond the reach of the Iconoclast emperors. A second consequence was the opening of another religious and political breach between the Greek East and the Latin West.

How did the MEROVINGIAN kings of the Franks acquire and hold power?

The Merovingian kings of the Franks initially rose to power through a blend of military conquest and inheritance, with Clovis I as the pivotal figure in uniting the Frankish tribes and establishing their dominance over Gaul in the 5th century AD. His conversion to Christianity solidified support from the Catholic Church. However, after Clovis I's rule, power became increasingly decentralized, with regional nobles known as "mayors of the palace" gaining influence. Ultimately, Pepin the Short overthrew the last Merovingian king in 751 AD, founding the Carolingian dynasty. While the Merovingian dynasty retained symbolic significance, the real power gradually shifted to the mayors of the palace, and the Merovingian kings served more as figureheads in Frankish society.

What factors contributed to the success of the Merovingian dynasty in maintaining their hold on power in Gaul, compared to other noble families in neighboring regions during the fifth and sixth centuries?

The Merovingians were not the only noble family in Gaul with a claim to kingship, but they were more successful in defending it than their counterparts in Visigothic Spain, Lombard Italy, and both the Anglo-Saxon and Celtic territories of Britain. In part, this was due to their capacity to transfer power from one generation to another. When it came to property or power, all the sons of a king—and frequently all his male cousins and nephews, and even his daughters—could consider themselves the rightful heir. So even when the hegemony of any family was not threatened by outsiders, the transfer of power was almost always bloody.

To what extent were the UMAYYAD and ABBASID CALIPHATES heirs of Rome? What made Islamic culture of this period distinctive?

The Umayyad Caliphate, based in Damascus from 661 to 750 CE, combined Roman administrative practices with their distinctive Islamic culture. They centralized their government, employed provincial governors, and integrated Roman architectural influences, seen in structures like the Umayyad Mosque. Emphasizing religion and using Arabic as the official language, they introduced the jizya tax system based on Islamic law and developed unique Islamic art and architecture. In contrast, the Abbasid Caliphate (750-1258 CE) continued Roman administrative practices but cultivated their own culture. They relocated the capital to Baghdad, a hub of learning, law, and culture. Their contributions to science, philosophy, and literature, along with distinctive Islamic art and architecture like the Great Mosque of Samarra, marked the Abbasid era as a pinnacle of Islamic civilization.

How did the VIKING INVASIONS contribute to the disorder of the ninth and tenth centuries?

The Viking raids in Europe had multifaceted and far-reaching consequences. They disrupted trade and commerce by targeting coastal towns and trading centers, causing economic decline and loss of wealth. Their violent tactics fostered insecurity and fear among the populace, creating a sense of instability that hindered normal community functioning. Additionally, central authority was weakened as rulers had to redirect resources to combat the Viking threat, giving rise to local powers more focused on self-interest. Lastly, the invasions prompted widespread population displacement and migration, disrupting social and political structures and forming new communities and alliances. In sum, the Viking invasions of the ninth and tenth centuries significantly contributed to the disorder and instability of the era.

How did gender roles and societal norms in the Islamic world reflect the broader cultural and religious contexts of the time, and what were the exceptions or instances where women could attain influence and power within this framework?

The absence of comparable careers for religious women, even comparable to those available to Christian nuns, is a reminder of the limits often imposed by gender. There are significant exceptions, of course. For example, Muhammad's favored wife, Aisha (ah-EE-sha, d. 678), was revered as a scholar and played an important role in the creation and circulation of hadith (Arabic for "narrative"), comprising stories and sayings that shed light on the Prophet's life and teachings. But in general, women did not benefit from Muslim egalitarianism and opportunity. They were considered valuable, but mostly as indicators of a man's wealth and status ---The Qu'ran allowed any Muslim man to marry as many as four wives, which often meant that the number of women available for marriage was far smaller than the number of men who desired to marry. This made for intense competition, and those men who had wives and daughters needed to ensure that their prized assets were safeguarded. So women were usually kept from the sight of men who were not members of the family or trusted friends. ---Along with female servants and the concubines also owned by a wealthy man, they were housed in a segregated part of the residence called the harem ("forbidden place"), guarded by eunuchs (men, usually sold as slaves, who had been castrated prior to adolescence). Within these enclaves, women vied with one another for precedence and worked to advance the fortunes of their children. But this was often the only form of power they could exercise

What were the factors that contributed to the downfall of the Carolingian Empire and the emergence of the Viking Age?

The civil wars and local political rivalries that had replaced the centralized states of Charlemagne and the Islamic caliphates contributed mightily to the chaos of the post-Carolingian world and made the Vikings' successes easily won

What were some factors that contributed to the breakdown of the coinage systems in Western Europe? How did this impact long-distance exchange and the supply of gold in the region?

The coinage systems of western Europe were also breaking down, which meant that wealth ceased to be portable, hindering long-distance exchange. The Arab conquests may have further reduced the supply of gold available in western Europe, because it was now being channeled eastward

How did rabbis keep Judaism not only alive but flourishing in Persia in the sixth century?

They presided over the codification of the Talmud, a collection of oral teachings and legal judgmenty and also established special schools to study the Torah. It was in Persia that many Palestinian Jews had found a home after the Romans' destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem. This new phase of Judaism's development in Persia during the diaspora is accordingly known as Rabbinic Judaism, and it soon influenced the establishment of similar schools and traditions in Jewish communities throughout the medieval world

What were the factors contributing to the decline of the Abbasid dynasty's economic base?

The declining power of the Abbasid dynasty in Persia was one of the forces that contributed to the escalation of Viking raids. A major cause of this decline was the gradual impoverishment of the Abbasids' economic base, the agricultural wealth of the ancient Tigris-Euphrates basin, which resulted from ecological crises and a devastating revolt by the enslaved African workforce there. Tax revenues from the Abbasid Empire were also declining, as provincial rulers in North Africa, Egypt, and Syria retained larger and larger portions of those revenues for themselves. As their sources of income became depleted, the Abbasids were unable to support either their large civil service or the mercenary army on which they relied for defense. This army was manned largely by slaves and mercenaries whose loyalties lay with the individual rulers who employed them, not with the caliphs. Massively expensive building projects, including the construction of the new Abbasid capital at Baghdad, further exacerbated the fiscal, military, and political crisis.

What were the key factors that led to the fall of the Umayyad Caliphate and the rise of the Abbasid Caliphate, and how did the Abbasids differ in their approach to governance, culture, and administration?

The failure of the Umayyads two massive attacks on Constantinople checked their power, which was also being challenged by a rival dynasty, the Abbasids, who claimed descent from one of Muhammad's uncles and who regarded the Umayyads as usurpers. In 750, the Abbasids led a successful rebellion with the help of the Persians, forcing the Umayyads to retreat to their territories in Al-Andalus (Spain). ---In contrast with the Umayyads, the Abbasid Caliphate stressed Persian elements over Roman ones. Symbolic of this change was the shift in capitals from Damascus to Baghdad, where the second Abbasid caliph, al-Mansur (r. 754-75) built a new city near the ruins of the old Persian capital. The Abbasid caliphs also modeled their behavior on that of Persian princes and their administration on the autocratic rule of the former Persian Empire, imposing heavy taxation to support a large professional army and presiding over an extravagantly luxurious court.

What was the role of the imperial bureaucracy in regulating and overseeing various aspects of social, economic, and cultural life in the Byzantine Empire, and how did it contribute to the empire's stability and continuity?

The imperial bureaucracy in Constantinople regulated prices and wages, maintained systems of licensing, and controlled exports and trade. Its highly educated officials also supervised many aspects of social and cultural life, overseeing schools, the organization of the Orthodox Church, and the observance of religious rites and holidays

What reasons contributed to the dissolution of Charlemagne's empire after his death?

The king's power rested too much on the ability to provide newly conquered land to his followers, the empire was negatively affected by trade disruptions and Viking raids, and the Franks still had not solved the problem of peaceful succession of power.

What were some of the ways in which the Umayyad caliphate functioned as a Roman successor state, and how did they exert their dominance over the Mediterranean?

The political triumph of the Umayyads in 661 and the military conquests of their supporters created a strong state centered on Damascus, formerly an administrative capital of the Roman Empire. In many ways, the Umayyad caliphate functioned as a Roman successor state since it continued to employ Greek-speaking bureaucrats trained in the techniques of Byzantine governance. Through these means, the Umayyads dominated the Mediterranean for several generations.

What was the advantage of having "soft frontiers" for the chieftains and kings?

The successful chieftains of this era therefore tended to be those whose areas of influence adjoined wealthy but poorly defended territories that could be easily attacked or blackmailed. Such "soft frontiers" provided warlords and kings with land and booty which they could then distribute to their followers.

Where does the Middle ages gets its name?

The term was coined in the seventeenth century to describe the period between the end of the western Roman Empire and the seventeenth-century rise of European states. Also, Christianity began to spread in the first century and Rome (in the form of Byzantium) existed until the mid-fifteenth century.

Discuss the approach of Arab Muslims in the early conquests towards the conversion of subject peoples and the role of religious enthusiasm in shaping their shared identity and dominance in newly conquered territories

There is little evidence that Arab Muslims attempted to convert subject peoples to the faith of Islam at this time. Instead, they aimed to establish themselves as a superior ruling class. Yet religious enthusiasm certainly played a crucial role in forging a shared identity among tribes hitherto at war with one another. This identity and sense of superiority must have been further strengthened by the absence of any serious opposition.

Why did Scandinavian Vikings begin to attack European settlements?

They began in response to economic and political instability in the Abbasid caliphate

What changes did Charlemagne make to the coinage system, and why were these changes significant for trade and commerce in his empire? How did Charlemagne's new coinage system compare to previous systems, and what was its lasting impact on Europe and Britain?

To facilitate transactions and trade, Charlemagne created a new coinage system based on a division of the silver pound into units of twenty shillings, each worth twelve pennies—a system that would last in parts of Europe and in Britain into the 1970s, when it was replaced by a decimal-based currency

How did Charlemagne govern his empire, and what role did the counts play in his system of governance? What were some of the responsibilities of the counts, and how did their duties contribute to the overall functioning of Charlemagne's empire?

To rule his vast new empire, Charlemagne enlisted the help of the Frankish warrior class he had enriched and elevated to positions of prominence. These counts (in Latin, comites, "followers") supervised local governance within their territories. Among their many duties was the administration of justice and the raising of armies.

What were the factors that contributed to the tensions between the noble families in Neustria and Austrasia towards the end of the seventh century, and how did these tensions lead to a challenge to the Merovingian dynasty?

Toward the end of the seventh century, tensions among noble families in the Merovingian heartland of Neustria and those in the border region of Austrasia were increasing. The Austrasian nobles had profited from their steady push into the "soft frontier" areas east of the Rhine, acquiring wealth and military power in the process. The Merovingians, based in Neustria, had no such easy conquests at their disposal. Moreover, a considerable portion of their land had been given to monasteries in the course of the seventh century, which decreased their wealth and their capacity to attract followers. A succession of short-lived kings then opened the door to a series of civil wars, and finally to a decisive challenge to the Merovingian dynasty.

What was the significance of the Anglo-Saxon literary culture fostered by Alfred the Great in England?

Until the eleventh century, Anglo-Saxon was the only European vernacular used for regular written communication.

What happened after Abu-Bakr's death? Specifically, how did the Arabs achieve significant military victories in Syria and Persia?

When Abu-Bakr died two years later, he was succeeded as caliph by Umar, who continued to direct his growing warrior bands against Byzantium and Persia. In the following years, Arab victories were virtually continuous. In 636 the Arabs routed a Byzantine army in Syria and then quickly swept over the entire area, occupying the leading cities of Antioch, Damascus, and Jerusalem. In 637 they destroyed the main army of the Persians and took the Persian capital of Ctesiphon. The rest of the realm offered little resistance. By 651, the Arabian conquest of the entire Persian Empire was complete.

What lands did the Franks conquer under Charlemagne's leadership, and what significance did these conquests hold for the Carolingian dynasty? How did Charlemagne's campaigns in Saxony differ from his other conquests, and what precedent did they set with respect to the relationship between military conquest and religious belief?

When Charlemagne came to power in 768, he managed to unite the Franks by the tried and true method of attacking a common, outside enemy. In a series of conquests, the Franks succeeded in annexing the Lombard kingdom of northern Italy, most of what is now Germany, portions of central Europe, and Catalonia. These conquests seemed to set a seal of divine approval on the new Carolingian dynasty. More important, they provided the victorious Franks with the spoils of war and vast new lands that enabled Charlemagne to reward his closest followers ---Many of the peoples whom Charlemagne conquered were already Christians. In Saxony, however, Charlemagne's armies campaigned for twenty years before subduing the inhabitants and forcing their conversion. This created a precedent with momentous consequences, because it linked military conquest with conformity of belief.

What were the causes and consequences of the division of Charlemagne's empire among his three sons?

When Charlemagne died in 814, his empire descended intact to his only surviving son, Louis the Pious. Under Louis, however, the empire disintegrated, and it was divided among his three sons in 840, Western Francia (the core of modern France) went to Charles the Bald. Eastern Francia (which became the principalities of Germany) went to Louis the German. A third kingdom (stretching from the Rhineland to Rome) went to Lothair, along with the imperial title. But when Lothair's line died out in 856, this fragile compromise dissolved into open warfare, as the East and West Franks fought over Lothair's former territories and the imperial power that went with them. The heartland of this disputed domain, known to the Germans as Lotharingia and to the French as Alsace-Lorraine, would continue to be a site of bitter contention until the end of the Second World War

What was the Umayyad dynasty, and how did they come to power in the Islamic world?

When the caliph Umar died in 644, he was replaced by Uthman, a member of the Umayyad (oo-MY-yad) family, a wealthy clan that had resisted Muhammad's authority. However, opponents of this new caliph rallied instead around Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, Ali, whose family ties to Muhammad made him seem a more appropriate choice. When Uthman was murdered in 656, Ali's supporters declared him the new caliph. But Uthman's powerful family refused to accept this. Ali was murdered and another member of the Umayyad family replaced him. From 661 to 750 this Umayyad dynasty ruled the Islamic world, establishing its capital at Damascus in Syria.

What were some of Pope Gregory I's political and administrative accomplishments during his time as bishop of Rome?

Within Italy, he ensured the survival of the papacy against Lombard invaders by clever diplomacy and expert management of papal estates and revenues. He also maintained good relations with Byzantium while asserting his authority over the other bishops of the Latin Church.

What were some of the accomplishments of Alfred the Great during his reign as king of the West Saxon kingdom?

a loosely unified kingdom emerged for the first time under Alfred the Great (r. 871-99). His success in defending his own West Saxon kingdom from Viking attacks, combined with the destruction of every other competing royal dynasty, allowed Alfred and his heirs to assemble effective armed forces, institute mechanisms of local government, found new towns, and codify English laws. In addition, Alfred established a court school and fostered a distinctive Anglo-Saxon literary culture.

What were the causes and consequences of the Iconoclast Controversy in the eighth century?

a violent clash over the meaning and use of religious images

What was the role of peasant farmers in the Byzantine economy, and how did they relate to large estates owned by aristocrats and monasteries?

agriculture lay at the heart of the Byzantine economy, so much so that peasant farmers struggled to maintain their independence from large estates owned by wealthy aristocrats and monasteries

How did Justinian's background shape his ability to rule as Emperor of the Byzantine Empire after succeeding Justin I in 527 CE?

born into a peasant family in Illyria, which is now part of modern-day Serbia, but his uncle, Justin I, became a prominent military commander and later Emperor of the Byzantine Empire. Justinian served as his uncle's co-ruler and right-hand man, and when Justin died in 527 CE, Justinian succeeded him as Emperor. Justinian was well-prepared for the role, having received a high-quality education and gained extensive experience in government and military affairs.

How were Frankish kings usually selected in the Merovingian dynasty?

election by tribal leaders

How did the Byzantine Empire's economy and urban centers compare to those of Western Europe during the same time period?

far superior to that of western Europe, commerce and cities continued to flourish as they had done in late antiquity. Constantinople became a central emporium for Far Eastern luxury goods and western raw materials. The empire also nurtured and protected its own industries, most notably the manufacture and weaving of silk, and it was renowned for its stable gold and silver coinage. Nor was Constantinople the only great urban center. The Hellenistic capital Antioch and the bustling cities of Thessalonica and Trebizond were very large and prosperous. Any one of them would have dwarfed any western European city. Constantinople may have had a population of close to a million. In the West at this time, Paris was a village and Rome may have had a few thousand people living among the ruins.

Justinian's most positive and lasting accomplishment was

his codification of Roman law

What role did Justinian, the ambitious Emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire, play in the overthrow of the Ostrogothic kingdom in 535?

in 535 the Ostrogothic kingdom was overthrown in an attempt to reunify the Roman Empire. The man responsible for this was Justinian (r. 527-65), the most ambitious emperor since Constantine. Although the empire that he ruled was largely Greek-speaking, Justinian himself came from the Latin-speaking province of Dardania (now Serbia).

Lords freed monasteries from the control of bishops by granting them?

land and other privileges, which created a de facto alliance between local lords and monasteries

Pope Gregory I was responsible for wide-ranging Church developments. Given his contributions, which two roles best describe the part he played for the Church?

political head of state and theologian

How did the Corpus provide theoretical support for constitutional forms of government, and what was the basis of this support?

the Corpus also provided some theoretical support for constitutional forms of government, because it maintained that a sovereign's powers are delegated to him by the people, and that what is mandated by the people can also be taken away by them

Byzantine achievements in the realms of architecture and art are also remarkable. The finest example of both may be

the church of Hagia Sophia (Greek for "Holy Wisdom") in Constantinople, constructed at enormous cost under the patronage of Justinian

the period between 500 and 1500 was the beginning of

the modern age

When Justinian came to the throne in 527, one of his first initiatives was

to bring existing precedents into harmony with new historical conditions and thereby to restore the prestige and power of the imperial office