Ch.10 - Building a successful Information System

Prototypes are usually used for the following purposes:

- Gathering system requirements—During the planning phase, designing a prototype and showing it to users is a good way to gather additional information and refine requirements for the proposed system. - Helping to determine system requirements—If users are not sure about the type of information system they want, a prototype can serve as a valuable tool for demonstrating the system's functional capabilities, after which users can be asked for their reactions. - Determining a system's technical feasibility—If a system is not technically feasible or appears to be unfeasible, a prototype can be used to show users that a particular task can be done. This type of prototype is called a proof-of-concept prototype. - Selling the proposed system to users and management—Prototypes are sometimes used to sell a proposed system to users and management by showing some of its features and demonstrating how beneficial it could be to the organization. This type of prototype is called a selling prototype. - After completing the prototype, users begin using it and evaluating its performance. Depending on the outcome, one of the following decisions is made: revise the prototype, cancel the information system project, develop a new prototype, or build a complete system based on the prototype.

Disadvantages of Prototyping

- It might require more support and assistance from users and top management than they are willing to offer. - The prototype might not reflect the final system's actual operation and, therefore, could be misleading. - Developing a prototype might lead analysts and designers to forego comprehensive testing and documentation. If the prototype works, the team might be convinced that the final system will work, too, and this assumption can be misleading.

Advantages of Prototyping

- It provides a method for investigating an environment in which the problem is poorly defined and information is difficult to gather. - It reduces the need to train information system users because the users are involved in developing the system - It reduces costs because building a model is less expensive than building the complete system. - increases the system's chance of success by encouraging users' involvement. - easier to modify a prototype than a complete system. - improves documentation - improves communication among users, top management, and information systems personnel because seeing a concrete model often prompts potential users of the system to ask questions, express opinions, point out shortcomings and strengths, and so forth.

disadvantages of outsourcing

- Loss of control—Relying on the outsourcing company to control information system functions can result in the system not fully meeting the organization's information requirements. - Dependency—If the organization becomes too dependent on the outsourcing company, changes in the outsourcing company's financial status or managerial structure can have a major impact on the organization's information system. - Vulnerability of strategic information—Because third parties are involved in outsourcing, the risk of leaking confidential information to competitors increases.

An outsourcing company that employs the SDLC approach has the following options:

- Onshore outsourcing—The organization chooses an outsourcing company in the same country. - Nearshore outsourcing—The organization chooses an outsourcing company in a neighboring country, such as when a U.S. organization chooses a company in Canada or Mexico. - Offshore outsourcing—The organization chooses an outsourcing company in any part of the world (usually a country farther away than a neighboring country), as long as it can provide the needed services.

agile alliance principles of agile development

- Satisfy the customer through early and continuous delivery of valuable software. - Welcome changing requirements, even late in development. - Have business people and developers work together daily throughout the project. - Build projects around motivated individuals. Give them the environment and support they need, and trust them to get the job done. - Always attend to technical excellence. Good design enhances agility. - At regular intervals, the team should reflect on how to become more effective, then tune and adjust its behavior accordingly.

The SDLC model might not be appropriate in the following situations:

- There is a lack of specifications—that is, the problem under investigation is not well defined. - The input-output process cannot be identified completely. - The problem is "ad hoc," meaning it is a one-time problem that is not likely to reoccur. - Users' needs keep changing, which means the system undergoes several changes. The SDLC model might work in the short term, but in the long term, it is not suitable in this situation.

seven guidelines for successful IT project management

1. Assign a project manager to the information systems being developed. 2. Identify a goal for every project meeting. 3. Document each project meeting with e-mail, memo, wiki, or (if applicable) internal social media. 4. Conduct regular face-to-face meeting with project technical staff. 5. A new person should take over as a project manager for team members that are falling behind. 6. Build in slack time for a project without disclosing it to the team members. 7. Assign the best available technical people to the project.

Prototyping is usually done in four steps:

1. Define the initial requirements. 2. Develop the prototype. 3. Review and evaluate the prototype. 4. Revise the prototype.

Conceptual data model (such as an entity relationship model) - Tools Used in SSAD Analysis Models

Data analysis - Helps analysts understand the data requirements a system must meet by defining data elements and showing the associations between them

top four reasons for IT project failures identified by this study

Inaccurate requirements. Lack of project sponsor involvements Changing project objectives Inaccurate estimates

IT projects fail for several different reasons, including:

Missed deadlines Users' needs that are not met Dissatisfied customers Lack of support from top management Exceeding the budget Inadequate planning Insufficient communication among team members Inadequate project management tools and techniques

disadvantages of self-sourcing include the following:

Possible misuse of computing resources Lack of access to crucial data Lack of documentation for the applications and systems that end users develop Inadequate security for the applications and systems that end users develop Applications developed by end users not up to information systems standards Lack of support from top management Lack of training for prospective users

Flowchart - Tools Used in SSAD Analysis Models

Process analysis - Illustrates the logical steps in a process but does not show data elements and associations; can supplement a DFD and help analysts understand and document how a process works

Data flow diagram (DFD) - Tools Used in SSAD Analysis Models

Process analysis and design - Helps break down a complex process into simpler, more manageable, and more understandable subprocesses; shows how data needed by each process flows between processes and what data is stored in the system; also helps define the system's scope - processes are indicated with a circle. Anything that interacts with the system but is not part of it is considered an "external entity" and is shown as a blue rectangle. Data stores (databases, file systems, even file cabinets) are shown as gray rectangles. - show data flows between processes and external entities, and the DFD also shows data flows between processes and data stores. These data flows are general, so they do not show specific data elements.

Context diagram - Tools Used in SSAD Analysis Models

Process analysis and design - Shows a process at a more general level and is helpful for showing top management and the task force how a process works

key features of extreme programming (XP)

Simplicity Incremental process Responsiveness to changing requirements and changing technology Teamwork Continuous communication among key players Immediate feedback from users

Prototyping Development Tools

Widely used tools include spreadsheet packages, such as Microsoft Excel, and database management packages, such as Microsoft Access, whereas Visual Basic is commonly used to code the logic required for processes. CASE tools and third-and fourth-generation programming languages can be used to quickly develop prototypes. Prototyping tools for user interface design include Designer Vista and GUI design studio

Joint application design (JAD)

a collective activity involving users, top management, and IT professionals. It centers on a structured workshop (called a JAD session) where users and system professionals come together to develop an application. -It involves a detailed agenda, visual aids, a leader who moderates the session, and a scribe who records the specifications. It results in a final document containing definitions for data elements, workflows, screens, reports, and general system specifications - advantage is that it incorporates varying viewpoints from different functional areas of an organization to help ensure that collected requirements for the application are not too narrow and one-dimensional in focus

Extreme programming (XP) (alternative to SDLC)

a method for developing software applications and information system projects in which the project is divided into smaller functions and developers cannot go on to the next phase until the current phase is finished. Each function of the overall project is developed in a step-by-step fashion. - method as a way of establishing specific goals and meeting them in a timely manner - Analysts write down features the proposed system should have—called the "story"—on index cards. The cards include the time and effort needed to develop these features, and then the organization decides which features should be implemented and in what order, based on current needs.* Each function of the overall project is developed in a step-by-step fashion. At the beginning, it is similar to a jigsaw puzzle; individually, the pieces make no sense, but when they are combined, a complete picture can be seen. - delivers the system to users as early as possible and then makes changes that the user suggests - programmers are usually organized into teams of two, sharing a workstation and working on the same code. This is called pair programming (also referred to as "sharing a keyboard"), each programmer performing the actions the other programmer is not currently performing. In this way, they can detect and correct programming mistakes as they go - uses incremental steps to improve a system's quality, addressing major issues that have not been examined before. - uses a software library for reusable pieces that can be integrated into the new system

Service-oriented architecture (SOA) (alternative to SDLC)

a philosophy and a software and system development methodology that focuses on the development, use, and reuse of small, self-contained blocks of codes (called services) to meet the software needs of an organization. - attempts to solve software development issues by recognizing, accepting, and leveraging the existing services - fundamental principle behind SOA is that the "blocks of codes" can be reused in a variety of different applications, allowing new business processes to be created from a pool of existing services. These services should be organized so they can be accessed when needed via a network. - offers many potential benefits to organizations, including reduced application development time, greater flexibility, and an improved return on investment. - advocates that core business functions and the dynamic functions that change all the time should be decoupled. - allows an organization to pick and choose those services that respond most effectively to the customer's needs and market demands. Services or "blocks of codes" can be replaced, changed, or even combined.

request for information (RFI)

a screening document for gathering vendor information and narrowing the list of potential vendors. It can help manage the selection of vendors by focusing on the project requirements that are crucial to selecting vendors. - alternative to an RFP - can help manage the selection of vendors by focusing on the project requirements that are crucial to selecting vendors. - NOT suitable for complex projects because it can be used only for selecting three or four finalists from a list of candidates.

Prototyping

a small-scale version of the system is developed, but one that is large enough to illustrate the system's benefits and allow users to offer feedback. - is also the fastest way to put an information system into operation. - building a small working model first is easier and less expensive than building the entire system. - can also be tested to detect potential problems and devise solutions. - has gained popularity in designing information systems because needs can change quickly and lack of specifications for the system can be a problem.

request for proposal (RFP)

a written document with detailed specifications that is used to request bids for equipment, supplies, or services from vendors. - usually prepared during the implementation phase and contains detailed information about the functional, technical, and business requirements of the proposed information system. - can take 6-12 months, but with software, the Internet, and other online technologies, time and costs can be reduced. - crucial part of this process is comparing bids from single and multiple vendors. Using a single vendor to provide all the information system's components is convenient, but the vendor might not have expertise in all areas of the information system's operations. - main advantage is that all vendors get the same information and requirements, so bids can be evaluated more fairly. Furthermore, all vendors have the same deadline for submitting bids, so no vendor has the advantage of having more time to prepare an offer. - major disadvantage is the time involved in writing and evaluating proposals. With the rapid changes in information technologies, a lengthy time frame makes RFPs less appealing. Many companies cannot wait 6-12 months to decide on a vendor for an information system

systems development life cycle (SDLC)

also known as the "waterfall model," is a series of well-defined phases performed in sequence that serves as a framework for developing a system or project. - In this model, each phase's output (results) becomes the input for the next phase. - When following this model, keep in mind that the main goal of an information system is delivering useful information in a timely manner to the right decision maker.

Outsourcing

an organization hires an external vendor or consultant who specializes in providing development services. - approach can save the cost of hiring additional staff while meeting the demand for more timely development of information systems projects. - With the development of Web 2.0, another form of outsourcing has become popular: crowdsourcing. This refers to the process of outsourcing tasks that are traditionally performed by employees or contractors to a large group of people (a crowd) through an open call.

SDLC 3. design phase

analysts choose the solution that is the most realistic and offers the highest payoff for the organization. - Details of the proposed solution are outlined, and the output of this phase is a document with exact specifications for implementing the system, including files and databases, forms and reports, documentation, procedures, hardware and software, networking components, and general system specifications. - For large projects in particular, computer-aided systems engineering tools (discussed in the next section) are helpful in the analysis and design phases. - consists of three parts: conceptual design, logical design, and physical design. - conceptual design is an overview of the system and does not include hardware or software choices. - logical design makes the conceptual design more specific by indicating hardware and software, such as specifying Linux servers, Windows clients, an object-oriented programming language, and a relational DBMS. These choices usually require changing the conceptual design to fit the platforms and programming languages chosen - physical design is created for a specific platform, such as choosing Dell servers running Ubuntu Linux, Dell laptops running Windows 10 and Internet Explorer

SDLC 2. Requirements Gathering and Analysis phase

analysts define the problem and generate alternatives for solving it. - During this phase, the team attempts to understand the requirements for the system, analyzes these requirements to determine the main problem with the current system or processes, and looks for ways to solve problems by designing the new system. - first step in this phase is gathering requirements. Several techniques are available for this step, including interviews, surveys, observations, and the JAD approach - What users do - How they do it - What problems they face in performing their jobs - How the new system would address these problems - What users expect from the system - What decisions are made - What data is needed to make decisions - Where data comes from - How data should be presented - What tools are needed to examine data for the decisions that users make - All this information can be recorded, and the team uses this information to determine what the new system should do (process analysis) and what data is needed for this process to be performed (data analysis). - The team uses the information collected during the requirements-gathering phase to understand the main problems, define the project's scope—including what it should and should not do—and create a document called the "system specifications." - This document is then sent to all key users and task-force members for approval. - The creation of this document indicates the end of the analysis phase and the start of the design phase. - There are two major approaches to the analysis and design of information systems: the structured systems analysis and design (SSAD) approach and the object-oriented approach. - After confirming these specifications with users, analysts start designing the system

feasibility study (phase 1 SDLC)

analyzes a proposed solution's feasibility and determines how best to present the solution to management. It usually has five major dimensions: economic, technical, operational, scheduling, and legal.

Phased-in-phased-out conversion (converting/implementing info sys)

as each module of the new system is converted, the corresponding part of the old system is retired. This process continues until the entire system is operational -Although this approach is not suitable in all situations, it can be effective in accounting and finance.

Economic feasibility

assesses a system's costs and benefits - Simply put, if implementing the system results in a net gain of $250,000 but the system costs $500,000, the system is not economically feasible - To conduct an economic feasibility study, the systems analyst team must identify all costs and benefits—tangible and intangible—of the proposed system. The team must also be aware of opportunity costs associated with the information system. Opportunity costs measure what you would miss by not having a system or feature - To assess economic feasibility, the team tallies tangible development and operating costs for the system and compares them with expected financial benefits - Development costs include the following: - Hardware and software - Software leases or licenses - Computer time for programming, testing, and prototyping - Maintenance costs for monitoring equipment and software - Personnel costs - Supplies and other equipment - Training employees - Operating costs for running the system are typically estimated, although some vendors and suppliers can supply costs. These costs can be fixed or variable (depending on rate of use). After itemizing these costs, the team creates a budget. - An information system's scope and complexity can change after the analysis or design phases, so the team should keep in mind that an information system project that is feasible at the outset could become unfeasible later - To complete the economic feasibility study, the team must identify benefits of the information system, both tangible and intangible. Tangible benefits can be quantified in terms of monthly or annual savings - Intangible benefits are difficult to quantify in terms of dollar amounts, but if they are not at least identified, many information system projects cannot be justified. Examples of intangible benefits include improved employee morale, better customer satisfaction - After collecting information on costs and benefits, the team can do a cost-effectiveness analysis. This analysis is based on the concept that a dollar today is worth more than a dollar one year from now. If the system does not produce enough return on the investment, the money can be better spent elsewhere. The most common analysis methods are payback, net present value (NPV), return on investment (ROI), and internal rate of return (IRR) - The final result of this task is the cost-benefit analysis (CBA) report, used to sell the system to top management. This report can vary in format but should include the following sections: executive summary, introduction, scope and purpose, analysis method, recommendations, justifications, implementation plans, summary, and appendix items, which can include supporting documentation

advantages of outsourcing

being less expensive, delivering information systems more quickly, and giving an organization the flexibility to concentrate on its core functions as well as other projects

Rapid application development (RAD) (alternative to SDLC)

concentrates on user involvement and continuous interaction between users and designers. It combines the planning and analysis phases into one phase and develops a prototype of the system. It uses an iterative process (also called "incremental development") that repeats the design, development, and testing steps as needed, based on feedback from users. - also known as a low-code or no-code systems development approach. It uses visual interfaces to allow IS personnel to drag various components from the software library, connect them in specific ways, and create an application with little or no coding required. - After the initial prototype, the software library is reviewed, reusable components are selected from the library and integrated with the prototype, and testing is conducted. - one shortcoming is a narrow focus, which might limit future development. In addition, because these applications are built quickly, the quality might be lower.

Legal Feasibility

concerned with legal issues, including political repercussions and meeting the requirements of the Information Privacy Act - Will the system violate any legal issues in the country where it will be used? - Are there any political repercussions of using the system? - Is there any conflict between the proposed system and legal requirements? For example, does the system take the Information Privacy Act into account?

Technical Feasibility

concerned with the technology to be used in the system. The team needs to assess whether the technology to support the new system is available or feasible to implement. - Lack of technical feasibility can also stem from an organization lacking the expertise, time, or personnel to implement the new system. This problem is also called "a lack of organizational readiness."

Scheduling Feasibility

concerned with whether the new system can be completed on time. - However, if the new system cannot be delivered in time, the loss of customers could force the organization out of business. In this case, the proposed system is not feasible from a schedule viewpoint. - The problem of missing deadlines is common in the information systems field, but designers can often minimize this problem by using project management tools

Internal users

employees who will use the system regularly; they can offer important feedback on the system's strengths and weaknesses.

insourcing

happens when an organization's team develops the system internally.

IT project management

includes activities required to plan, manage, and control the creation and delivery of an information system. - Activities include everything that take place during the SDLC process - The implementation of an information system can be a complex task. To manage this complexity and keep the implementation plan under budget and on schedule, systems analysts employ project management tools and techniques. These help systems analysts solve scheduling problems, plan and set goals, and highlight potential bottlenecks - Project management techniques are also used, including PERT (program evaluation review technique), CPM (critical path method), and Gantt charts.

Generally, an information system has two groups of users from whom the task force should gather feedback:

internal and external

SDLC 1. planning phase

is one of the most crucial phases of the SDLC model, the systems designer must define the problem the organization faces, taking care not to define symptoms rather than the underlying problem. - The problem can be identified internally or externally. An example of an internally identified problem would be management voicing concern about the organization's lack of a competitive edge in the marketplace. An example of an externally identified problem would be suppliers noting inefficiency in the inventory control procedure - After identifying the problem, an analyst or team of analysts assesses the current and future needs of the organization or a specific group of users by answering the following questions: - Why is this information system being developed? - Who are the system's current and future users? - Is the system new, or is it an upgrade or extension of an existing system? - Which functional areas (departments) will be using the system? - As part of this assessment, analysts must examine the organization's strategic goals, how the proposed system can support these goals, which factors are critical to the proposed system's success, and the criteria for evaluating the proposed system's performance. - During this phase, they need to make sure users understand the four Ws: - Why—Why is the system being designed? Which decisions will be affected? - Who—Who is going to use the system? Is it going to be used by one decision maker or a group of decision makers? This question is also about types of users. - When—When will the system be operational? When in the business process (in what stages) will the system be used? - What—What kind of capabilities will the system provide? How will these capabilities be used? - The end result of this phase should give users and top management a clear view of what the problem is and how the information system will solve the problem.

Gantt chart

lists the completion time (sometimes called the "milestone") on the x-axis and all the activities on the y-axis. This allows the systems analyst to monitor the progress of the project and detect any delay in the daily operation of the project. If a delay is spotted, the systems analyst must consider additional resources if the entire project is to be completed on schedule

In the information systems field, system failure can happen for several reasons, including:

missed deadlines, users' needs that are not met, dissatisfied customers, lack of support from top management, and exceeding the budget. Old equipment, being unable to handle the capacity and pick times, also causes system failure

External users

not employees but do use the system; they include customers, contractors, suppliers, and other business partners. Although they are not normally part of the task force, their input is essential.

proof-of-concept prototype

shows users how a particular task that was not technically feasible can be done.

Agile Methodology (alternative to SDLC)

similar to XP in focusing on an incremental development process and timely delivery of working software. However, there is less emphasis on team coding and more emphasis on limiting the project's scope. - focuses on setting a minimum number of requirements and turning them into a working product. - emphasizes collaboration between programmers and business experts, preferably with face-to-face communication, and working in teams. - Goals of this step-by-step approach include responding to changing needs instead of sticking to a set plan and developing working, high-quality software. - The agile methodology also strives to deliver software quickly to better meet customers' needs. - two popular frameworks: scrum and kanban - Scrum focuses on a delivery cadence called a sprint and meeting structures that include planning, commitment, and daily standup meetings, allowing teams to communicate updates on their development status and strategies. A sprint ends with a demo meeting where the key features of the system are shown to the users. A follow-up meeting completes the process where the team discusses what went well and what needs improvement in the next round. - Kanban is a visual system for managing a project as it moves through various processes. Using this framework, the design team pulls user requests from an intake board and funnels them through a staged development process until they are completed. Although Scrum is more popular than Kanban, both are focused on delivering finished products fast within a transparent culture

PERT (program evaluation review technique) and CPM (critical path method)

techniques work by determining the "critical path" for the completion of a series of interrelated activities. This includes all those activities that are extremely crucial for the completion of the project, with zero slack time. If any of the activities is delayed, the entire project is delayed. Activities that are not on the critical path are more flexible and can be delayed without delaying the project - To establish a PERT or CPM network, the analyst identifies all the activities needed for the completion of the project, identifies and establishes a prerequisite list (the activities that have to be accomplished first), and calculates the critical path duration. - Using the critical path, the systems analyst can establish a Gantt chart.

Pilot conversion (converting/implementing info sys)

the analyst introduces the system in only a limited area of the organization, such as a division or department. If the system works correctly, it is implemented in the rest of the organization in stages or all at once.

SDLC 5. maintenance phase

the information system is operating, enhancements and modifications to the system have been developed and tested, and hardware and software components have been added or replaced. - maintenance team assesses how the system is working and takes steps to keep the system up and running - the team collects performance data and gathers information on whether the system is meeting its objectives by talking with users, customers, and other people affected by the new system. If the system's objectives are not being met, the team must take corrective action. - Creating a help desk to support users is another important task in this phase. - With the ongoing nature of the SDLC approach, maintenance can lead to starting the cycle over at the planning phase if the team discovers the system is not working correctly.

Feasibility

the measure of how beneficial or practical an information system will be to an organization; it should be measured continuously throughout the SDLC process

Operational Feasibility

the measure of how well the proposed solution will work in the organization and how internal and external customers will react to it. - The major question to answer is whether the information system is worth implementing. - is the system doing what it is supposed to do? - Will the information system be used? - Will there be resistance from users? - Will top management support the information system? - Will the proposed information system benefit the organization? - Will the proposed information system affect customers (both internal and external) in a positive way?

Parallel conversion (converting/implementing info sys)

the old and new systems run simultaneously for a short time to ensure the new system works correctly. - this approach is costly and can be used only if an operational system is already in place.

Plunge (direct-cutover) conversion (converting/implementing info sys)

the old system is stopped and the new system is implemented. - This approach is risky if there are problems with the new system, but the organization can save on costs by not running the old and new systems concurrently.

crowdsourcing

the process of outsourcing tasks that are traditionally performed by employees or contractors to a large group of people (a crowd) through an open call. - has become popular with publishers, journalists, editors, and businesses that want to take advantage of the collaborative capabilities offered by Web 2.0. - It works with organizations to solve their problems, taking advantage of the power of diverse thinking inside and outside the organization.

SDLC 4. implementation phase

the solution is transferred from paper to action, and the team configures the system and procures components for it. Acquiring new equipment Hiring new employees Training employees Planning and designing the system's physical layout Coding Testing Designing security measures and safeguards Creating a disaster recovery plan - When an information system is ready to be converted/implemented, designers have several options: - Parallel conversion - Phased-in-phased-out conversion - Plunge (direct-cutover) conversion - Pilot conversion

computer-aided systems engineering (CASE)

tools automate parts of the application development process. These tools are particularly helpful for investigation and analysis in large-scale projects because they automate parts of the design phase. - support the design phase by helping analysts do the following: - Keep models consistent with each other. - Document models with explanations and annotations. - Ensure that models are created according to specific rules. - Create a single repository of all models related to a single system, which ensures consistency in analysis and design specifications. - Track and manage changes to the design. - Create multiple versions of the design. - are similar to computer-aided design (CAD) tools used by architects and engineers. Their capabilities vary, depending on the product, but generally include the following: - Graphics tools, such as data flow diagrams, to illustrate a system's operation - Dictionary tools designed to record the system's operation in detail - Prototyping tools for designing input and output formats, forms, and screens - Code generators to minimize or eliminate programming efforts - Project management tools to help control the system's schedule and budget - usually include the following output: - Specifications documents - Documentation of the analysis, including models and explanations - Design specifications with related documentation - Logical and physical design documents based on the conceptual design - Code modules that can be incorporated into the system

(t/f) According to a recent report, more than half of IT projects fail. Project management and lack of proper utilization of project management tools and techniques have a lot to do with such a high failure rate.

true

(t/f) Designing a successful information system requires integrating people, software, and hardware. To achieve this integration, designers often follow the systems development life cycle (SDLC), also known as the "waterfall model."

true

(t/f) During the planning phase, analysts investigate a proposed solution's feasibility and determine how best to present the solution to management in order to obtain funding. The tool used for this purpose is a feasibility study, and it usually has five major dimensions, discussed in the following sections: economic, technical, operational, scheduling, and legal.

true

(t/f) Given the need to complete information system projects as quickly as possible, shortening the time needed to write and evaluate proposals is often necessary.

true

(t/f) Information system projects are often an extension of existing systems or involve replacing an old technology with a new one. However, sometimes an information system needs to be designed from scratch, and the SDLC model is particularly suitable in these situations

true

(t/f) Many budgets do not allow enough for development costs, especially technical expertise (programmers, designers, and managers), and for this reason, many information system projects go over budget.

true

(t/f) Systems analysts use computer-aided systems engineering (CASE) tools to automate parts of the application development process. These tools are particularly helpful for investigation and analysis in large-scale projects because they automate parts of the design phase.

true

(t/f) Systems planning today is about evaluating all potential systems that need to be implemented. A preliminary analysis of requirements for each is done, and a feasibility study is conducted for each system. Then the organization decides which ones are a "go" and proceeds to the next phase.

true

(t/f) The SDLC approach is sometimes called insourcing, meaning an organization's team develops the system internally

true

(t/f) The major question to answer when conducting operational feasibility is whether the information system is worth implementing.

true

(t/f) The team might decide on one of the following approaches for constructing the prototype: using an external vendor, using software packages or fourth-generation programming languages, or using high-level programming languages and developing the prototype from scratch.

true

(t/f) To ensure an information system's success, users must have input in the planning, requirements-gathering and analysis, design, and implementation phases. For this reason, a task force is formed, consisting of representatives from different departments (including IT), systems analysts, technical advisors, and top management. This team collects user feedback and works toward getting users involved from the beginning.

true

(t/f) Using a task force for designing an information system is similar to using the joint application design approach

true

(t/f) With the help of development tools such as query languages, report generators, and fourth-generation programming languages, self-sourcing has become an important part of information system resources.

true

(t/f) any system has three parts: process, data, and user interface. Analyzing requirements in the analysis phase is done from the perspective of the process and data. The SSAD approach treats process and data independently and is a sequential approach that requires completing the analysis before beginning the design. The object-oriented approach combines process and data analysis, and the line between analysis and design is so thin that analysis and design seem to be a single phase instead of the two distinct phases

true

selling prototype

used to sell a proposed system to users or management by showing some of its features.

self-sourcing (or end-user development)

when end users develop their own information systems, with little or no formal assistance from the information systems team. These users might not know how to write programming code, but they are typically skilled enough to use off-the-shelf software, such as spreadsheet and database packages, to produce custom-built applications. - With the help of development tools, such as query languages, report generators, and fourth-generation programming languages, self-sourcing has become an important part of information system resources. - It is also useful in creating one-of-a-kind applications and reports - can help reduce the backlog in producing information systems and improve flexibility in responding to users' information needs. - The list of applications that are not requested is often longer than the backlog, and it is called the "invisible" backlog. - managers are concerned about end users' lack of adequate systems analysis and design background and loosening of system development standards. - gives end users the power to build their own applications in a short time and create, access, and modify data. This power can be destructive, however, if the organization does not apply control and security measures - To prevent the proliferation of information systems and applications that are not based on adequate systems-development principles, organizations should develop guidelines for end users and establish criteria for evaluating, approving or rejecting, and prioritizing projects. - Classifying and cataloging existing applications are necessary to prevent end users from developing applications that basically handle the same functions as an existing application; this redundancy can be costly. In addition, data administration should be enforced to ensure the integrity and reliability of information. Creating private data should be minimized, if not eliminated.

pair programming (XP)

where two programmers participate in one development effort at one workstation. Each programmer performs the action the other is not currently doing. - also known as sharing a keyboard