Ch.12

Applying the Job Characteristics Model

Diagnose the work environment to see whether a problem exists: -job diagnostic survey: a self-report instrument for managers to use that indicates whether an individual's motivating potential score (MPS) (the amount of internal work motivation associated with a specific job) is high or low. Determine whether job redesign is appropriate.: -If MPS is low, determine which of the core job characteristics is causing the problem -next decide whether job redesign is appropriate for a given group of employees. -Job design is most likely to work in a participative environment in which employees have the necessary knowledge and skills.

Reinforcement Theory

attempts to explain behavior change by suggesting that behavior with positive consequences tends to be repeated, whereas behavior with negative consequences tends not to be repeated -using this to change human behavior --behavior modification

process perspectives

concerned with the thought processes by which people decide how to act (how employees chose behavior to meet their needs) -equity/justice theory -expectancy theory goal setting theory

Equity Theory

model of motivation that explains how people strive for fairness and justice in social exchange or give-and-take relationships -employees are motivated to see fairness in the rewards they expect for task performance and are motivated to resolve feelings of injustice -based on cognitive dissonance the psychological discomfort people experience between their cognitive attitude and incompatible behavior, the discomfort motivated them to take action to maintain consistency between their beliefs and behaviors -key elements: inputs (time, effort, training, experience, intelligence, creativity, seniority, status), outputs(rewards-pay, benefits, praise, promotion, recognition, bonuses, status prereq.), and comparisons (people compare the ratio of their outcomes to inputs vs the ratio of someones else outcome with those of others inside or similar jobs as them and see if its fair and don't change behaviors (equity) or not fair and change behaviors (inequity)) -employees who feel they are under rewarded (inequity) will respond by reducing their inputs (do the minimum), trying to change the outputs or rewards they will receive (if they don't give ill just take) , distorting the equity (they never paid me what im worth), changing the object by comparison, or leaving the situation. -employees who feel they are treated fair support the org. change, more apt to cooperate in group setting, less apt to turn to arbitration & the courts to remedy real or imagined wrongs (chart 5)

simple model of motivation

people have certain needs that motivate them to perform specific behaviors for which the receive rewards that feed back and satisfy the original need 1-unfulfilled need (desire is created to fulfill a need) 2-motivation (you search for ways to satisfy the need) 3-behaviors (you choose a types of behavior you think will satisfy the need) 4- rewards 5-feedback(reward informs you on whether behavior worked & should be used again)

needs

physiological or psychological deficiencies that arouse behavior -strong or weak -influence by environmental factors so they vary over time & from place to place

Types of Reinforcement

positive- use of positive consequences to strengthen a particular behavior -Reward only desirable behavior. -give rewards as soon as possible -Be clear about what behavior is desired: tell employees exactly what kinds of work behaviors are desirable, and you should tell everyone exactly what he or she must do to earn rewards -Have different rewards and recognize individual differences negative- strengthening a behavior by withdrawing something negative extinction: weakens behavior- weakening of behavior by ignoring it or making sure its not reinforced punishment: also weakens behavior- process of weakening behavior by presenting something negative or withdrawing something positive -punish only undesirable behavior: frequency -Give reprimands or disciplinary actions asap: -Be clear about what behavior is undesirable- Tell employees exactly what kinds of work behaviors are undesirable and make any disciplinary action or reprimand match the behavior. -Administer punishment in private: people who report to you also shouldn't be reprimanded in public, which would lead only to resentments -Combine punishment and positive reinforcement- If you're reprimanding an employee, be sure to also say what he or she is doing right and state what rewards the employee might be eligible for (chart)

Goal Setting Theory

suggest that employees can be motivated by goals that are specific and challenging but achievable -only useful when people understand and set goals -goal- objective that a person is trying to accomplish through his or her efforts

motivation

the psychological processes that arouse and direct goal-directed behavior -hard to understand because you can't see it or know it in a person---must be inferred from one's behavior

Two techniques for fitting jobs to people

+Job Enlargement- "Putting More Variety into a Job" -opposite of scientific management -consists of increasing the number of tasks in a job to increase variety and motivation -proponents claim job enlargement can improve employee satisfaction, motivation, and quality of production, research says job enlargement by itself won't have a significant and lasting positive effect on job performance. -just one tool of many that should be considered in job design +Job Enrichment-"Putting More Responsibility and Other Motivating Factors into a Job" -consists of building into a job such motivating factors as responsibility, achievement, recognition, stimulating work, and advancement but instead of the job-enlargement technique of simply giving employees additional tasks of similar difficulty (horizontal loading), give employees more responsibility (vertical loading). I

money motivator

-motivating doesn't just involve dollars

Content perpectives

-need based perspectives -theories that emphasize the needs to motivate people -"what kind of needs motivate employees at work?"

motivation and employee engagement -contextual factors

-organizational cultures -cross- cultural values -physical environment -rewards & reinforcement -group norms -communication technology -leader behavior -organizational design -organizational climate' -job design

reinforcement

-evades the issue of peoples needs and thinking processes in relation to motivation -concerned with how consequences of a certain behavior affect that behavior in the future -skinner operant conditioning (the process of controlling behavior by manipulating its consequences) -operating condition rest on the law of effect (behavior with favorable consequences tends to disappear) -reinforcement- anything that causes a given behavior to be repeated or inhibited

Theory 1: Maslow's hierarchy of needs

-people are motivated by 5 levels of needs: 1. physiological 2. safety- ex: fringe benefits-insurance 3. love 4. esteem 5. self-actualization. (see chart 1) -says needs are never really satisfied-- our actions aim at achieving the "deprived needs" once we achieve one need we need to achieve the next -not supported by research, but shows people have other needs than just a paycheck -managers should meet employees level 1 & 2 needs then give employee a chance to fulfill higher needs in ways that advance the goal of the org.

why motivation is important?

-want to motivate employees to be more productive -mangers want to motivate people to : 1. join your org.- you need to instill in talented prospective workers the desire to come work for you 2. Stay with you org- whether in good or bad economic terms, you want to retain good people 3. Show up for work at your org- absenteeism and lateness are tremendous problems 4. Be engaged while at your org- engaged employees produce higher quality work & better customer service 5. Do extra for your org- hope your employees will perform extra task above & beyond the call of duty (be organizational "good citizens")

Theory 4: Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory

-work satisfaction and dissatisfaction arise from 2 different factors: 1. work satisfaction from motivating factors (higher level needs)- factors (achievement, recognition, responsibility, and advancement--all affect job content or rewards of work performance) -motivating factors (challenges, opportunities, recognition) must be instituted 2. work dissatisfaction from hygiene factors (lower-level needs)- factors( salary, working conditions, interpersonal relationships, and company policy--all affect job context) (chart 3) -there will always be employees who dislike their jobs, but the you should first eliminate dissatisfaction (hygiene factors), making sure that working conditions, pay levels, and company policies are reasonable then concentrate on motivation by providing opportunities for achievement, recognition, responsibility, and personal growth (motivating factors).

McGregor's Theory X/Theory Y--4 theories

-Maslow's hierarchy of need theory -McClelland's acquired needs theory -Deci and Ryan's self-determination theory -Herzberg's two factor theory (chart 4)

using expectancy theory to motivate employees

-What rewards do your employees value? you need to get to know your employees and determine what rewards (outcomes) they value (pay raises or recognition) Valence -What are the job objectives and the performance level you desire? You need to clearly define the performance objectives and determine what performance level or behavior you want so that you can tell your employees what they need to do to attain the rewards -Are the rewards linked to performance? want to reward high performance so employees must be aware that X level of performance within Y period of time will result in Z kinds of rewards -in a team context its best to use a combination of individual and team-based rewards Do employees believe you will deliver the right rewards for the right performance? -your credibility is on the line- employees must believe that you have the power, the ability, and the will to give them the rewards you promise for the performance you are requesting

How the job characteristics model work

-affects workers motivation because they affect three critical psychological states: 1. meaningfulness of work 2. responsibility of results 3. context satisfactions -in turn they fuel high motivation, performance satisfaction, and low absenteeism -contingency factors- degree to which a person wants personal and psychological development -Job design works when employees are motivated; to be so, they must have three attributes: 1. necessary knowledge and skill 2. desire for personal growth 3. context satisfactions (the right physical working conditions, pay, and supervision) -job design works, but it's not for everyone (more likely to work when people have the required knowledge and skills, when they want to develop, and when they are satisfied with their jobs)

Theory 2: McClelland's acquired needs theory

-applies to people in management: three needs are major motives determining peoples behavior in the work place: 1. achievement (need to excel, do better or more efficiently, solve problems, to achieve in excellence in challenging tasks) -prefer working on challenging, but not impossible task-good performance relies on effort & responsibility rather than luck-rewards for efforts- want +/- feedback 2. affiliation (desire for friendly & warm relations w/ other people) -most managers -prefer work that allows control & to be publicly recognized for accomplishments 3. power (desire to be responsible for others, to influence their behavior or to control them) -seek approval- not the most efficient manager-prefer work that provides personal relationships and social approval (sales) -personal (negative-desire to dominate others, manipulating) & institutional (positive-desire to solve problems and that further org goals) (chart 2) -believes we are not born with our needs we learn them from culture or life experiences -can apply by appealing to the preferences associated with each need when you 1. set goals 2. provide feed back 3. assong task 4. design the job

Theory 3: Deci and Ryan's Self- Determination Theory

-assumes people are driven to try to grow and attain fulfillment, with their behavior and well-being influence by three innate needs: 1. competence- want a sense of mastery (feeling qualifies, knowledgable, & capable or completing task & learning new skills) -managers can provide tangible resources, time, contacts, and coaching to improve employee competence so employees have knowledge & info to perform their job 2. autonomy- want to feel independent and able to influence environment (freedom & discretion to determine what the want to do and two to do it) -to enhance managers develop trust & to empower employees they delegate meaningful task 3. relatedness- want to feel connected with other people (need a sense of belonging of attachment to others) -camaraderie -more focused on intrinsic motivation which last longer and have a more positive impact on task performance than extrinsic

Job Characteristics Model

-consists of five core job characteristics that affect, three critical psychological states of an employee that in turn affect, and work outcomes (employee's motivation, performance, and satisfaction) (chart 7)

Justice theory

-expansion into org. justice- extent to which people perceive they are treated fairly at work 1.Distributive justice—"How fairly are rewards being given out?"-the perceived fairness of how resources and rewards are distributed or allocated. 2. Procedural justice—"How fair is the process for handing out rewards?"- the perceived fairness of the process and procedures used to make allocation decisions. 3. Interactional justice—"How fairly am I being treated when rewards are given out?" -the "quality of the interpersonal treatment people receive when procedures are implemented -not about how decision making or procedures are perceived but whether people believe they are being treated fairly when decisions are implemented -Fair interpersonal treatment necessitates that managers communicate truthfully and treat people with courtesy and respect

rewards

-extrinsic: satisfaction in the payoff from others (money a person receives from others for performing a specific task) -external reward; payoff from pleasing others -Intrinsic rewards: satisfaction in performing the task itself (feeling of accomplishment a person receives from outperforming the particular task itself) - internal reward; payoff form pleasing yourself

Expectancy Theory

-people are motivated by two things 1. how much they want something 2. how likely they think they are to get it -people will choose the choice that gets them the greatest reward if they can get it -motivation involves relationship between your efforts, performance, and outcomes -chart 6 -1. Expectancy—"Will I Be Able to Perform at the Desired Level on a Task?"- the belief that a particular level of effort will lead to a particular level of performance (effort-to-performance expectancy) 2. Instrumentality—"What Outcome Will I Receive If I Perform at This Level?" -the expectation that successful performance of the task will lead to the outcome desired (performance-to-reward expectancy) 3. Valence—"How Much Do I Want the Outcome?" - Valence is value, the importance a worker assigns to the possible outcome or reward -for your motivation to be high, you must be high on all three elements—expectancy, instrumentality, and valence, If any element is low, your motivation goes down.

motivation and employee engagement -personal factors

-personality -ability -core s self-evaluations -emotions -attitudes -needs -values -work attitudes

5 practical lessons that can be drawn from equity and justice theories

1. Employee Perceptions Are What Count No matter how fair management thinks the organization's policies, procedures, and reward system are, each employee's perception of the equity of those factors is what counts. 2. Employees Want a Voice in Decisions That Affect The- Managers benefit by allowing employees to participate in making decisions about important work outcomes because employees' perceptions of procedural justice are enhanced when they have a voice ("employees upward expression of challenging by constructive opinions, concerns, or ideas) in the decision-making process -Managers are encouraged to seek employee input on org. changes that will affect the workforce, but many managers don't -employees were evaluated more negatively when they engaged in challenging forms of voice & managers also were less likely to use these employees' ideas. -Be careful when you challenge your boss's decisions. 3. Employees Should Be Given an Appeals Process- Employees who are given the opportunity to appeal decisions that affect their welfare enhance the perceptions of distributive and procedural justice. 4. Leader Behavior Matters Employees'- perceptions of justice are strongly influenced by the leadership behavior exhibited by their managers so it's important for managers to consider the justice-related implications of their decisions, actions, and public communications. 5. A Climate for Justice Makes a Difference-Managers need to pay attention to the organization's climate for justice (related to team performance) -climate of justice can influence the type of customer service provided by employees & this level of service influences customers' perceptions of "fair service" and their subsequent loyalty and satisfaction. examples: resolve negative inequity by asking for a raise or a promotion (raising your outputs) or by working fewer hours or exerting less effort (reducing inputs), also resolve the inequity cognitively, by adjusting your perceptions as to the value of your salary or other benefits (outcomes) or the value of the actual work done by you or your coworkers (inputs).

To result in high motivation and performance, goals must have

1. Goals Should Be Specific- specific (qualitative) and difficult goals lead to higher performance than general goals 2. Certain Conditions Are Necessary for Goal Setting to Work- People must have the ability and resources needed to achieve the goal, and they need to be committed to the goal 3. Goals Should Be Linked to Action Plans- (action plan outlines the activities/ tasks that need to be done to obtain a goal and reminds us of what we should be working on ) -more likely to achieve your goal when you a detailed action plans (students & orgs) 4. Performance Feedback and Participation in Deciding How to Achieve Goals Are Necessary but Not Sufficient for Goal Setting to Work- Feedback and participation enhance performance only when they lead employees to set and commit to a specific, difficult goal. -Goals lead to higher performance when you use feedback and participation to stay focused and committed to a specific goal -goals should be SMART: Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Results-oriented, and having Target dates

4 Motivation Mechanisms for Goal Setting theory

1. It Directs Your Attention- directs your attention toward goal relevant tasks and away from irrelevant ones 2. It Regulates the Effort Expended- The effort you expend is generally proportional to the goal's difficulty 3. It Increases Your Persistence- makes obstacles become challenges to be overcome, not reasons to fail 4. It Fosters Use of Strategies and Action Plans- makes it more likely that you will succeed

5 job characteristics

1. Skill Variety—"How Many Different Skills Does Your Job Require?" -the extent to which a job requires a person to use a wide range of different skills and abilities. 2. Task Identity—"How Many Different Tasks Are Required to Complete the Work?" - the extent to which a job requires a worker to perform all the tasks needed to complete the job from beginning to end 3. Task Significance—"How Many Other People Are Affected by Your Job?" -the extent to which a job affects the lives of other people, whether inside or outside the organization. 4. Autonomy—"How Much Discretion Does Your Job Give You?" -the extent to which a job allows an employee to make choices about scheduling different tasks and deciding how to perform them. 5. Feedback—"How Much Do You Find Out How Well You're Doing?" -the extent to which workers receive clear, direct information about how well they are performing the job.

4 perspectives of motivation

1. content 2. process 3. job design 4. reinforcement

non-monetary incentives

1. need for work-life balance 2. need to expand their skills 3. need for a positive work environment 4. need to matter—to find meaning in their work.

job design

1. the division of an org. work among its employees 2. the application of motivational theories to jobs in increase satisfaction and performance -two approaches to job design: +traditional-fitting people to jobs -assumption that people will adapt to any work situation -jobs must be tailored for any one to do - how can we make the worker more compatible with the work? -scientific management- reducing the number of tasks a worker performs, increasing efficiency and productivity +modern-fitting jobs to people -assumption that people are underutilized at work and that they want more variety, challenges, & responsibility -reason for popularity of work teams -how can we make work most compatible with the worker so as to produce both high performance & job satisfaction? -job enlargement -job enrichment