CH3243 Ch. 9

Discuss transracial adoptees.

• Although transracial adoptees may seem like they are at a particular risk, studies have shown that they are just as successful as intra-racial adoptees. For example, they feel just as good about themselves & have resolved their ethnic identities just as well as intra-racial adoptees.

Describe the results of the well-known study that compared the cross-sex relationships of adolescent girls raised by married women, divorced women, & widows.

• The daughters of divorcees were more flirtatious & began dating earlier. • The daughters of widows were cautious when interacting with men & set high standards that had to be met before they were willing to get involved.

How long do these short-term emotional reactions last?

• These negative emotions do not last. After *three years*, adolescents reported that sadness & shock had greatly diminished and were replaced with relief & gladness.

Discuss pre-divorce economic circumstances.

• Those who have a low level of education, marry at an early age, & earn less money are more likely to get divorced. In addition, declining economic circumstances increase the likelihood of getting divorced. • This means that children with divorced parents are more likely than children whose parents are married to have experienced poverty or a decline in their standard of living. These stressful economic circumstances prior to divorce will likely contribute to negative outcomes after divorce.

What is *joint custody?* What is the main advantage of joint custody? What is the main requirement of joint custody?

• *Joint custody* is when two parents share decision making privileges and/or living with a child. • Fathers who have joint custody are more likely to be active in parenting than noncustodial fathers. Therefore, their children are better adjusted. • Joint custody requires a high degree of maturity & flexibility from parents. Otherwise, they will continue to fight & negatively impact their children.

What are the long-term effects of divorce?

• In one study, children of divorced parents scored significantly lower than children of married parents on measures of academic achievement, acceptable conduct, psychological adjustment, self-concept, & social relations. However, the differences were not always great. • The effects of parental divorce also extend into adulthood. Adults whose parents divorced when they were children are *less likely* to attend college and *more likely* to cohabit before marriage, to have children at any early age, & to suffer from poor mental health. • Many researchers have confirmed that parental divorce has a long-term effect on children's relationships. One study found that children of divorced parents are at *twice the risk* of getting divorced themselves compared to children of married parents. More recent studies found that a woman with divorced parents often has lower commitment to her fiancé & less confidence in her relationship with him.

How does the presence of grandparents affect children's wellbeing & development?

• In one study, greater grandparent involvement was associated with fewer emotional problems & increased prosocial behavior, especially among adolescents from single-parent families.

Which seven factors influence the effects of divorce?

(*H*er *P*erverse, *P*itiful *P*arents *P*rovided *A*cute *R*ejection) 1. *H*eredity & temperamental differences 2. *P*re-divorce economic circumstances 3. *P*re-divorce parental behavior 4. *P*ost-divorce economic resources 5. *P*ost divorce parental behavior 6. *A*micability of the divorce 7. *R*elocation & relationship loss

What are the short-term reactions to the death of a parent?

• Adolescents may experience sadness (*dysthymia*) for up to a year after the death of a parent, but only a minority will become clinically depressed. • Adolescents may develop fears about the safety of their remaining parent. • Adolescents may develop PTSD, especially if the death was violent or unexpected. • Adolescents may lose interest in schoolwork or other activities.

What are the issues are associated with being raised in a one-parent family? Which issues have received the most attention?

• Adolescents raised in a single-parent family (of any sort) are more likely to exhibit emotional & personality problems, to engage in delinquent acts, to be involved in early pregnancies, to use drugs, to do poorly in school, and to be aggressive. • The *development of masculinity/femininity* & *school achievement* have received the most attention.

Discuss contact between adolescents & fathers after divorce.

• Many adolescents fear that divorce will cause them to lose contact with a parent. This fear is not irrational; 18-25% of children lose contact with their fathers within 2-3 years after divorce occurs. • The adolescents who remain in close contact with fathers (especially when those fathers are authoritative, help with schoolwork, & support them financially) do better academically & have fewer behavioral problems.

Discuss pre-divorce parental behavior.

• Many aspects of the behavior of parents prior to divorce can be harmful to children: 1. Mothers may behave more negatively toward their children. 2. Mothers & fathers may exercise less control over their children. 3. Because parents are under physical & psychological stress, there may be decreases in the quality of parenting. 4. Either parent may be abusing alcohol or other substances, as this is a frequently cited reason for divorce.

Discuss adolescents raised by gay & lesbian parents.

• Many individuals assume that adolescents raised by gay & lesbian parents are more likely to have problems, including (1) abnormal sexual identity, (2) adjustment & personality problems, (3) impaired relationships, and (4) an increased likelihood of being sexually abused. • However, research shows that children raised by gays & lesbians do not behave any differently from children raised by heterosexual parents.

How does raising grandchildren affect the wellbeing of grandparents?

• Many studies have shown the raising grandchildren takes a toll on the wellbeing of grandparents. • For example, grandparents in the *parental supplement model* & *supportive primary parenting model* have higher rates of depression, worse physical health, & more stress than noncustodial grandparents. Still, many custodial grandparents report immense satisfaction from their role as parent.

How do the residential patterns of adolescents vary race/ethnicity & family income level?

• Most Asian American adolescents live with both biological parents, whereas *two-thirds* of African American adolescents live apart from their biological fathers. • Middle-class adolescents are more likely to live with both biological parents. In contrast, working-class adolescents are more likely to live with only mothers or with neither parent.

Does very adolescent with divorced parents have long-term problems?

• Most adolescents with divorced parents DO NOT have long-term problems. • It is important to remember that divorce is a *risk factor*; it increases the likelihood of problems, but it does not guarantee them.

Discuss the development of masculinity in boys from one-parent families.

• Most researchers accept that boys whose fathers are absent score lower on measures of masculinity, have less masculine self-concepts & sex-role orientations, are more dependent & less aggressive, and are less competent in peer relationships than boys whose fathers are present. • The *younger* a boy is when he is separated from his father & the *longer* the separation, the more the boy will be affected in early childhood. However, as the boy gets older, the early effects of separation diminish. By late childhood, father-absent boys may score as high as father-present boys on measures of sex-role adoption. • The effect of father absence largely depends on whether the boy has a male surrogate role model. For example, boys with a surrogate role model (e.g. an older sibling) are less affected than those without a surrogate role model.

What percentage of adolescents live with one biological parent? What percentage of adolescents live with both biological parents?

• Nearly all American adolescents live with at least one biological parent. • Over half of American adolescents live with both biological parents.

What percentage of marriages end in divorce? What percentage of these marriages involve children?

• Nearly half of all American marriages end in divorce. • The majority of these marriages involve children.

How are the perceptions of the family should function different for parents & adolescents?

• One study found that adolescents expected their biological mothers to maintain disciplinary responsibility. However, both mothers & stepfathers might believe that disciplinary duties should be shared between them.

How are the perceptions of how well the family is functioning different for parents & adolescents?

• One study found that over half of mothers & adolescents had different views of the *adolescent-stepfather relationship*, the *degree to which remarriage affected the adolescent*, & the *degree to which the adolescent thought that remarriage affected the adolescent-parent relationship*. The mothers generally had a more positive view of the family situation.

Do parents who remain in conflict-ridden marriages aid their children's development?

• Parents who remain in high-conflict marriages do not help their children's development. In fact, studies show that children whose parents are divorced are better off than children who live in discordant households.

How does remarriage affect children?

• Stepchildren seem more like children raised in single-parent families than children raised in intact families. They are more likely than children from intact families to do poorly in school, to be involved in teen pregnancy, to drop out of school, to use drugs, & to divorce their future spouse.

What are the short-term emotional reactions to divorce?

(*S*he *F*elt *S*ad *J*ust *A*fter *M*om's *S*eparation) 1. Adolescents may react with *shock & disbelief* if they not have realized the extent of their parents' marital problems. 2. Adolescents may react with *fear, anxiety, & insecurity about the future* (e.g. "Will I still get to see my dad? Will I have to go to another school? Who am I going to live with?"). 3. Adolescents may experience feelings of *sadness, dejection, & depression*. 4. Adolescents may become *jealous & resentful* when their parents begin to date again. 5. Adolescents may react with *anger & hostility*, especially toward the parent that they blame for the divorce. In some cases, this is directed toward both parents (e.g. "You made me leave my friends & school. You ruined my life."). 6. Adolescents may experience a period of *mourning & grief* after the divorce of parents. They have to adjust the absence of one parent, whom they may have depended on for affection & support. 7. Adolescents may react with *self-blame & guilt*; they may feel partly responsible for the divorce or they may believe that a parent is leaving because he/she wants to get away from them.

List the four types of helping arrangements found in a study of 120 black adolescent mothers & their mothers.

1. *Parental Supplement Model* (˜50%) 2. *Supportive Primary Parenting Model* (˜20%) 3. *Parental Replacement Model* (˜10%) 4. *Parental Apprentice Model* (˜10%)

Which three factors contribute to the lower wellbeing of adolescents with divorced parents?

1. *The conflict leading up to the divorce*. The child may witness parental battles & experience family tension. 2. *The trauma of the divorce itself*. The divorce of parents brings pain & uncertainty. The child may ask questions such as, "Where will I live?" & "Will my dad still love me?" 3. *The long-term lifestyle changes that result from divorce*. The child will likely spend less time with one parent, or the child may alternate between households. The family's financial situation may also deteriorate, and the family may move to a new neighborhood. In addition, the parents may change their behavior toward the child.

Why do stepmothers experience greater difficulties in raising their stepchildren than in raising their biological children?

1. Biological fathers often expect stepmothers to do more childrearing than vice-versa; stepfathers are able to remain uninvolved with disciplining. 2. Noncustodial biological mothers stay more involved than noncustodial biological fathers, which can create conflict between stepmothers & biological mothers. 3. Fairytales & folklore have created the stereotype of the cruel stepmother, which may be difficult to overcome.

How do successful stepfamilies deal with stress?

1. They give adolescents time to adjust to changes. 2. They give adolescents the opportunity to be heard. 3. They increase the time that the adolescent spends with the biological, custodial parent. 4. They maintain extended family ties. 5. They verbally acknowledge the difficulties that everyone is experiencing. 6. They minimize changes to routine.

Why do many adolescents have difficulty accepting their new stepparents?

1. They may be jealous of the attention that their parent gives his or her new partner. 2. They may view the stepparent as an intruder or another adult who will try to curtail their freedom. 3. They may believe that their primary loyalty is toward their biological parent.

What are the three different explanations for this pattern?

1. Those with divorced parents are highly apprehensive about marriage & have a lower commitment to their marriages. As a result, their marriages are more likely to fail. 2. Since children tend to model the behavior of their parents, those with divorced parents may imitate behavior that is detrimental to a successful marriage. 3. Those with divorced parents tend to marry earlier than those with married parents. However, marriage at earlier ages is associated with divorce.

Discuss relocation & relationship loss.

• Many adolescents do not see one of their parents (usually their fathers) nearly as often as they previously did. In addition, they are less likely to spend times with the extended family of the noncustodial parent. • Many adolescents also lose contact with their friends because their custodial parents relocates them.

Describe adolescents' relationships with full biological siblings, stepsiblings, & half siblings.

• *Full biological siblings* - Full siblings who are raised in stepfamilies tend to be less close than those raised in intact families. In addition, boys are especially likely to become more distanced from their siblings. • This distance carries into adulthood, so that full siblings are distanced from each other even after childhood. • *Stepsiblings* - Most step siblings get along reasonably well. However, their relationship is often more casual than relationships with full siblings or half siblings, and involves fewer positive & negative interactions. • *Half siblings* - Half-siblings are often treated the same as full siblings, and they have the same kinds of relationships.

What are the two issues of custody?

• *Legal custody* refers to the right of the parent to make decisions affecting the child. • *Residential custody* refers to where & with which parent the child will live.

How do adolescents from adoptive families compare with adolescents from single-parent families & intact, biological families?

• Adolescents from adoptive families have fewer problems & better educational attainment than adolescents from single-parent families. This is because they tend to have better economic circumstances, and hence go to better schools & receive better health care. In addition, adoptive families tend to be stable and adoptive parents tend to be warm & nurturing. • However, adolescents from adoptive families are not as successful as adolescents from intact, biological families. In fact, a subset of adopted adolescents do poorly in school, are more likely to have conduct disorders, & are not as popular with peers.

Discuss the school performance, achievement, & vocations of adolescents from one-parent families.

• Adolescents with single parents are less likely to do well in school than adolescents with married parents. This is especially true for girls, and especially true for mathematics. • Adolescents from one-parent homes are also less likely to attend college. This may be due to economic issues, poor academic performance, and other factors such as low self-esteem & uncertainty in one's ability to succeed in school. • Since doing well in school is important for obtaining well-paying jobs, those from one-parent families are less likely to obtain satisfactory employment.

What are the *post-adoption* factors that contribute to maladjustment among adopted adolescents?

• Adopted adolescents may experience more complex attachment issues & more conflict over regulation issues than other adolescents (e.g. "You can't tell me what to do, you're not my REAL mom"). • Adopted adolescents may have difficulty coping with increasing autonomy if they were previously abandoned. • Adopted adolescents may face social stigma because of their adopted status. • Adopted adolescents may have more difficulty with the identity search. This is particularly true for adolescents with closed adoptions. In contrast, adolescents with open adoptions may experience conflicting loyalties between relatives with different values & lifestyles.

What are some important determinants of the adolescents' reactions to the death of a parent?

• An important determinant of adolescents' reactions is the success that their surviving parent has with coping. • Another important determinant is the degree to which the adolescent's life remains similar to how it always was.

How do children influence the quality of a remarriage?

• Children are usually not pleased when their parents remarry & do not welcome their new stepparents. • This may put a strain on the newlyweds; in fact, the presence of children from prior marriages increases the possibility of divorce.

How many children & adolescents lived in households headed by grandparents in 2000? How often were mothers present?

• In 2000, more than *4.5 million* children & adolescents lived in households headed by grandparents. • Mothers were present in most situations, but they were absent in *25%* of situations.

How do the reasons for living with one parent vary by race/ethnicity & family income level?

• In Caucasian homes, divorce is the most common reason for living with one parent. In Hispanic & African American homes, out-of-wedlock birth is the most common reason for living with one parent. • In families with higher income levels, divorce is the most common reason for living with one parent. In families with lower-income levels, out-of-wedlock birth is the most common reason for living with one parent.

Which gender has a more difficult time adjusting to their parents' remarriage?

• In many cases, daughters have a harder time adjusting to their parents' remarriage than sons.They tend to be more resistant to both stepmothers & stepfathers. In addition, their adjustment difficulties are more severe & sustained. Instead of acting out, they often withdraw.

Discuss the *parental replacement model*.

• In this situation, grandmothers assumed total parental responsibilities and mothers played an insignificant part. • In some families, this model was chosen by mutual agreement (e.g. both the mother & grandmother wanted the mother to go to college); in other families, the grandmother took over because the mother was negligent. • The benefits of this model are that (1) the child may have a more competent, nurturing parent; and (2) the mother is able to focus on her own development. • The drawbacks of this model are that (1) the mother & grandmother may experience conflict (e.g. if the grandmother does not want to become a full-time parent, or if the mother does not want to give up her role as parent); and (2) the child may have to make an adjustment in the future if the mother returns to resume her role as parent.

Discuss the *parental supplement model*.

• In this situation, mothers & grandmothers essentially co-parented. However, the grandmothers did not necessarily share a home with their daughters & grandchildren. • The benefits of this model are that (1) the child has the care of two parents, one of whom is experienced; (2) the mother has help with caring for her children, & (3) the mother can continue her education.

Discuss the *supportive primary parenting model*.

• In this situation, mothers were responsible for the full-time care of their children and the grandmothers helped with expenses, occasionally babysat, & assisted with household responsibilities. • Some families chose this model because the mother wanted to live with her boyfriend or to assume an independent, adult lifestyle; other families chose this model because the grandmother did not to assume full-time childrearing or did not want to make things too easy for the mother & encourage additional pregnancies. • The benefits of this model are that (1) the mother is provided with support, and (2) the child is provided with additional care taking. • The drawbacks of this model are that (1) the mother may become overwhelmed when managing so much on her own, (2) the mother may not have time to finish her education or to complete job training, and (3) the child may be poorly cared for or neglected.

Discuss the *parental apprentice model*.

• In this situation, the grandmother acted as mentors to their daughters, and gradually turned over responsibility to them. • The benefits of this model are that (1) the mother receives the training that she needs, (2) the child becomes strongly attached the mother, (3) the mother & the grandmother do not experience conflict about who is the primary parent, (4) the child receives high-quality care, and (5) the mother & grandmother tend to have warm relations. • The drawback of this model is that there is so much emphasis on parenting that the mother may be unable to advance in her education or prepare for employment.

What did Judith Wallerstein's study find? What were the limitations of her study?

• Judith Wallerstein believed that children can be scarred for life by divorce. Her study found that children of divorced parents displayed negative outcomes even a *quarter-century* after the divorce. • These outcomes were even seen among young adults who were calm & untroubled as children, which led Wallerstein to conclude that the long-term effects of divorce cannot be predicted from the early reaction of a child. • The limitations of her study are the small size, the lack of a control group, and the fact that the sample was nonrandom & overrepresented by families that sought clinical support.

Discuss heredity & temperamental differences.

• The ability to adapt to change varies among individuals and involves the quality of their coping skills, the level of their self-esteem, & their willingness to seek help from others. These personality traits affect how a child will adjust to the divorce of his parents. • Some children are more resilient than others. Moreover, there is evidence that these personality traits are genetic. For example, some researchers found that genetic differences influence an individual's tendency to respond to stress with depression. In addition, researchers found that an inherited genetic susceptibility causes a number of the effects associated with divorce (e.g. substance abuse, cohabitation).

Discuss the development of femininity in girls from one-parent families.

• The absence of fathers seems to have an opposite effect on girls. In one study, for example, African American girls raised by single mothers were more masculine than those raised in two-parent families. • The absence of fathers may also contribute to a lack of meaningful cross-sex relationships in childhood, which can make it more difficult for girls to relate to the opposite sex in adolescence.

What are the *pre-adoption* factors that contribute to maladjustment among adopted adolescents?

• The birth mothers of many adopted adolescents receive inadequate prenatal care, as there is an increased likelihood that these mothers are young, impoverished, or substance abusers. • The children may have been neglected or abused prior to being adopted.

Discuss amicability of the divorce.

• The conflict between parents does not always end when they get divorced. • If there is conflict between divorced parents, the children may feel caught in the middle. For example, adolescents become particularly upset when parents try to get them to take sides or to find out about the other parent.

Discuss post-divorce economic resources.

• The economic status of children worsens after the divorce of their parents. Most children live with their mothers after divorce, although a woman's standard of living declines significantly. • Children often lose the lifestyle that they are familiar with. For example, children may move to a smaller home in a different neighborhood or school district. In addition, they may need to get a job to help with expenses.

How does the experience of parental divorce compare to the experience of parental death?

• The experience of parental death may be somewhat similar to the experience of parental divorce. For example, both involve feelings of loss, changing economic circumstances, & disruption of the child's life. • However, with parental death, the loss is permanent & there is no hope for continued contact. In addition, there are less feelings of betrayal. For example, *children's attitudes toward their fathers decline after divorce, but rise after death*.

What is the most important aspect of custody arrangements?

• The most important aspect of custody is the degree to which both parents remain actively engaged in the adolescent's life & continue to function as parents. The parents should share negative *and* positive aspects of parenting.

Discuss post-divorce parental behavior.

• The psychological adjustment of parents after divorce greatly influences the adjustment of adolescents. The more upset that parents are, the more likely that adolescents will be disturbed. • The quality of parenting deteriorates after a divorce. In the short-run, parents may become less affectionate & more authoritarian, and they may be less consistent with demands & enforcement of rules. In the long run, parents may engage in less monitoring of their children's behavior & use less effective discipline strategies. • Some parents feel guilty about the divorce & try to make it up to their children by spoiling them. This is especially true for noncustodial parents who try to make the most of the time that they have with their children.

Which type of custody arrangement is best?

• The research comparing adolescents in joint custody with those in single-parent custody has mixed results. • The *quality* of the child's relationship with each parent & of the parents' relationship with each other matters more than the *quantity* of contact.

What is the typical reaction of a stepchild to a stepparent? What is the result of this reaction?

• The typical reaction of a stepchild to a stepparent is *rejection* (e.g. "You're NOT my parent"). This is difficult for the stepparent & may lead to a battle of wills. In many cases, the stepparent pulls back; he or she may display less warmth & support and give up trying to control or monitor the adolescent.

Discuss the research examining the differences between adolescents raised by single mothers who were never wed & adolescents raised by single mothers who were married but later divorced.

• There is very little research comparing these adolescents • Moreover, the existing research is complicated by age, race, & SES: - The research on unwed mothers focuses on the children of *adolescent parents*, whereas the research on divorced mothers focuses on the children of *older parents*. Since adolescent mothers are generally less successful, it is hard to separate the effects of being raised by an unwed mother & the effects of being raised by an adolescent mother. - The majority of single Black mothers have never been wed, whereas the majority of single White mothers have been divorced. Relatedly, never wed mothers have a lower SES than divorced mothers.

Discuss the research on the difference between parental absence due to death & parental absence due to divorce or out-of-wedlock birth.

• There is very little research on this subject. • Still, one study found that daughters of widows had more positive views of men than daughters of divorcees. • An additional study found *no link* between alcohol abuse & parental death, but an *evident link* between alcohol abuse & parental divorce. • This study also found a shorter period of depression among children whose parents had died; this can be attributed to *less family conflict* & a *lack of genetic contribution to psychological difficulties* in the families that experienced parental death.

What were custody arrangements like prior to the 1980's? What are custody arrangements like now?

• Until the 1980's, the mother was automatically granted both legal & residential custody of children unless there were circumstances that would keep her from being a competent parent. • Today, the father's chances of custody are *enhanced* when children are older, when the oldest child is male, & when the father is the claimant. The father's chances of custody are *reduced* when the mother has a higher educational level, when the mother has higher earnings, & when the father defaults on child support.