Chap 9 Psych

authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and uninvolved

Diana Baumrind thinks that parenting style can nurture a healthy self-concept. She developed a theory describing 4 parenting styles:

identity vs. role confusion

In adolescence (12-18), children face the task of ____ vs ______ o Main task is developing a sense of self. o Along the way, most adolescence try on many different identities to see which one fits. o Adolescents who are successful at this stage have a strong sense of identity and are able to remain true to their beliefs and values in the face of problems and other people's perspectives.

Theory of mind

Between 3 and 5 years old, children come to understand that people have thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that are different from their own. This is known as ___________ o They use this skill to tease others, persuade their parents to purchase a candy bar, or understand why a sibling might be angry. o When they develop this, they recognize that others have false beliefs

integrity vs despair

Late adulthood (mid 60s to end of life) is tasked with ______ vs _________. o People reflect on their life and feel either a sense of satisfaction or a sense of failure.

prenatal care

The developing fetus is completely dependent on the mother for life, so it is important that the mother receive ______

autonomy vs. shame and doubt

A toddler's main task (age 1-3) is to resolve the issue of ____ vs _____, by working to establish independence. o This is the "me do it" stage o For example, we might observe a budding sense of autonomy in a 2-year-old child who wants to choose her clothes and dress herself. Although her outfits might not be appropriate for the situation, her input in such basic decisions has an effect on her sense of independence. If denied the opportunity to act on her environment, she may begin to doubt her abilities, which could lead to low self-esteem and feelings of shame.

no, but they are significant

Are a newborns sensory abilities fully developed?

Assimilation and accommodation

As children learn, they adjust their schemata through 2 processes:

zygote

begins as a one-cell structure that is created when a sperm and egg merge. o The genetic makeup and sex of the baby are set at this point.

Lawrence Kohlberg

believed that moral development, like cognitive development, follows a series of stages. • To develop his theory, he proposed moral dilemmas to people of all ages, and then he analyzed their answers to find evidence of their particular stage of moral development.

hospice

the aim of this is to help provide a death with dignity and pain management in a humane and comfortable environment, which is usually outside the hospital setting. o Created by Cicely Saunders in 1967 in England o In 1947, Florence Wald found the first one of these in the US

Adolescence

the period of development that begins at puberty and ends at emerging adulthood. o A time to develop independence from parents while remaining connected to them o 12-18 years

object permanence

the understanding that even if something is out of sight, It still exists.

Sigmund Freud

believed that personality develops during early childhood. o Childhood experiences shape our personalities and behaviors as adults. o He viewed development as discontinuous and believed that each of us must pass through a series of stages during childhood, and that if we lack proper nurturance and parenting during this stage, we may become stuck or fixed in that stage.

nature

biology and genetics

Formal operational stage

children in this stage can deal with abstract ideas and hypothetical situations. o They can use abstract thinking to problem solve, look at alternative solutions, and test these solutions. o A renewed egocentrism occurs during adolescence. o Final stage and is from age 11 to adulthood.

Schemata

concepts that are used to help us categorize and interpret information. o By the time we reach adulthood, we have developed these for almost everything

accommodation

describes when we change our schemata based on new information.

no o Growth slows between 4 and 6 years old: During this time, children gain 5-7 pounds and grow about 2-3 inches per year o Once girls reach 8-9 years old, their growth rate outpaces that of boys due to a pubertal growth spurt. This growth spurt continues until around age 12, coinciding with the start of the menstrual cycle.

during infancy and childhood, does growth occur at a steady rate?

Preoperational Stage

during this stage, children can use symbols to represent words, images, and ideas, which is why children in this stage engage in pretend play. o Approx. 2-7 years old o Arm might become an airplane wing or a child with a stick might become a brave knight with a sword. o Children also begin to use language in this stage, but they can't understand adult logic or mentally manipulate information. o Children's logic is based on their own personal knowledge of the world so far, rather than on conventional knowledge. we also expect children to display geocentricism during this stage

Sensorimotor stage

during this stage, children learn about the world through their senses and motor behavior o Lasts from birth to about 2 years o Young children put objects in their mouth to see if items are edible

middle adulthood

extends from the 40s to the 60s. o Physical decline is gradual o Skin loses elasticity and wrinkles form o Visual acuity decreases. o Women experience gradual decline of fertility and enter menopause. o Hair thins and grays

Gross Motor skills

focus on large muscle groups that control our arms and legs and involve larger movements (balancing, running, jumping)

Fine motor skills

focus on the muscles in our fingers, toes, and eyes, and enable coordination of small actions (grasping a toy, writing with a pencil, and using a spoon.)

Concrete operational stage

in this stage, children can think logically about real (Concrete) events; they have a firm grasp on the use of numbers and start to employ memory strategies. o They can perform math operations and understand transformations. o Children also master the concept of conservation: even if something changes shape, its mass, volume, and number stay the same. o Also understand the principle of reversibility. o 3rd stage and is from 7 - 11 years of age

disorganized attachment

in this type of attachment, children behaved oddly in the Stranger Situation o Freeze, run around the room in an erratic manner, or try to run away when the caregiver returned. o Seen most often in kids who have been abused

resistant attachment

in this type of attachment, children tend to show clingy behavior, but then they reject the attachment figure's attempts to interact with them. o These children do not explore toys in a room because they are too fearful o During separation, they become disturbed and angry with the parent o These children have a caregiver who shows inconsistent levels of response to the child

avoidant attachment

in this type of attachment, the child is unresponsive to the parent, does not use the parent as a secure base, and does not care if the parent leaves. o Toddler reacts to the parent in the same way as the stranger o These children are most likely to have a caregiver who was insensitive and inattentive to their needs

secure attachment

in this type of attachment, the toddler prefers his parent over a stranger o The attachment figure is used as a secure base to explore the environment and is sought out in times of need and stress o Healthiest form of attachment o These children have caregivers who are sensitive and responsive to their needs

Permissive style

in this, the kids run the show and anything goes o Parents make few demands and rarely use punishment. They tend to be very nurturing and loving, and may play the role of friend rather than parent o There would be no bedtime rules at all o Kids of this style tend to lack self-discipline and it is negatively associated with grades. Can also contribute to risky behaviors such as alcohol abuse o Kids tend to have higher self-esteem, better social skills, and report lower levels of depression

authoritative style

in this, the parent gives reasonable demands and consistent limits, expresses warmth and affection, and listens to the child'spoint of view o Set rules and explain the reasons behind them o Parents are flexible and willing to make exceptions to the rules in certain cases Temporarily relaxing bedtime while on vacay o One of the most encouraged parenting styles in modern society

uninvolved style

in this, the parent is indifferent, uninvolved, and sometimes referred to as neglectful. They do not respond to the child's needs and make relatively few demands o Can cause severe depression or substance abuse o Kids are usually emotionally withdrawn, fearful, anxious, perform poorly in school, and are at increased risk for substance abuse

Authoritarian style

in this, the parent places high value on conformity and obedience. Parents are often strict, tightly monitor their children, and express little warmth o Would not relax rules like bedtime because they consider rules to be set in stone o This style can create anxious, withdrawn, and unhappy kids

Newborn Reflexes

inborn automatic responses to particular forms of stimulation. o Are crucial to survival o Are present in babies whose brain is developing normally and usually disappear between 4-5 months. o Ex: rooting reflex is a response to anything that touches her cheek. When you touch a babies cheek, she automatically turns her head in that direction and begins to suck. The sucking reflex is automatic, unlearned

Psychosocial Development

involves emotions, personality, and social relationships.

Physical Development

involves growth and changes in the body and brain, the senses, motor skills, and health and wellness.

Cognitive Development

involves learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity.

late adulthood

is considered to extend from the 60s on o Last stage of physical change o Skin continues to lose elasticity, reaction time slows further, and muscle strength diminishes. o Smell, taste, hearing, and vision decline significantly o Brain no loner functions at optimal levels

egocentrism

means that a child is not able to take the perspective of others. A child at this stage think that everyone sees, thinks, and feels just as they do.

Reversibility

means that objects can be changed, and then returned back to their original form or condition. o Think water poured into short, fat glass, then a thin glass.

prenatal Care

medical care during pregnancy that monitors the health of both the mother and the fetus. o Important b/c it can reduce the risk of complications to the mother and fetus during pregnancy.

conception

occurs when a sperm fertilizes an egg and forms a zygote.

Primary sexual characteristics

organs specifically needed for reproduction, like the uterus and ovaries in females and the testes in males

nurture

our environment and culture

secondary sexual characteristics

physical signs of sexual maturation that do not directly involve sex organs, such as development of breasts and hips in girls and the development of facial hair and a deepened voice in males

Psychosocial development

theory that emphasizes the social nature of our development rather than its sexual nature. Proposed that personality development takes place all through the lifespan. o Erikson suggested that how we interact with others is what affects our sense of self, or what he called the ego identity.

Psychosexual development

process proposed by Freud in which pleasure -eeking urges focus on different erogenous zones of the body as humans move through the 5 stages of life: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital proposed by Freud

Stages of Moral Reasoning

process proposed by Kohlberg that says that humans move through 3 stages of moral development • An individual progresses from the capacity for pre-conventional morality (before age 9) to the capacity for conventional morality (early adolescence), and toward post-conventional morality (once formal operational thought is obtained) which few fully achieve .

motor skills

refer to our ability to move out bodies and manipulate objects

Temperament

refers to the innate traits that influence how one thinks, behaves, and reacts with the environment o Children with easy these demonstrate positive emotions, adapt well to chane, and are capable of regulating their emotions o Children with difficult these demonstrate negative emotions and have difficulty with change and their emotions

cognitive empathy

relates to the ability to take the perspective of others and feel concern for others. o Also known as theory-of-mind o Begins to increase in adolescence and is an important component of social problem solving and conflict avoidance o Begins around 13 for girls and 15 for boys

emerging adulthood

relatively newly defined period of lifespan development spanning from 18 years old to the mid 20s, characterized as an in-between time where identity exploration is focused on work and love.

Jean Piaget

stage theorist who studied childhood development, focused on children's cognitive growth. • He believed that thinking is a central aspect of development and that children are naturally inquisitive. o However, he claims that children to not think and reason like adults.

Developmental Psychologists

study how humans change and grow from conception through childhoods, adolescence, adulthood, and death. They view development as a lifelong process that can be studied scientifically across three developmental domains: physical, cognitive, and psychosocial development

normative approach

study of development using norms, or average ages, when most children reach specific developmental milestones Although children develop at slightly different rates, we can use these age related averages as general guidelines to compare children with same-age peers to determine the approximate ages they should reach specific developmental milestones (ex: crawling, walking, writing, dressing, naming colors, etc.)

Discontinuous Development

those who believe this believe that development takes place in unique stages: it occurs at specific times or ages. o Change is more sudden o Ex: infant's ability to conceive object permanence.

Continuous Development

views development as a cumulative process, gradually improving on existing skills. o There is a gradual change. o For example, a child's physical growth: adding inches to her height year by year.

Germinal Stage

weeks 1 and 2 conception zygote formation • During the first week after coneption, the zygote divides and mulitplies, going from a one-cell structure to two cells, then four cells, then eight, and so one. o Known as mitosis • Mitosis is a fragile process and fewer than ½ of all zygotes survive beyond the first 2 weeks. • The mass of cells has yet to attach itself to the lining of the mother's uterus. Once it does, the next stage begins

Embryonic stage

weeks 3-8 • After the zygote divides for about 7-10 days and has 150 cells, it travels down the fallopian tubes and implants itself in the lining of the uterus. • Upon implantation, this multi-cellular organism is called an embryo o now blood vessels grow and form the placenta • Basic structures of the embryo start to develop into areas that will become the head, chest, and abdomen • Heart begins to beat and organs form and begin to function • The neural tube forms along the back of the embryo, developing into the spinal cord and brain

sensorimotor stage preoperational stage concrete operational stage formal operational stage

what are the 4 stages Piaget believed there were to cognitive development

assimilation

when we take in information that is comparable to what we already know

Mary Ainsworth

who conducted the stranger situation project?

Erik Erikson

who proposed the psychosocial theory of development?

True

True or False: Child care practices vary by culture, and different practices have been found to accelerate or inhibit achievement of developmental milestones such as sitting, crawling, and walking.

True

True or False: In infancy, toddlerhood, and early childhood, the body's physical development is rapid.

personality is shaped, in some part, by experiences we have in childhood.

What we can take away from Freud's theory is that

Fetal Alchohol Spectrum Disorders

a collection of birth defects associated with heavy consumption of alcohol during pregnancy. o Physically, children may have small head size and abnormal facial features. o Cognitively, these children may have poor judgement, poor impulse control, higher rates of ADHD, learning issues, and lower IQ scores o These problems will persist through adulthood.

attachment

a long-standing connection or bond with others

secure base

a parental presence that gives the child a sense of safety as he explores his surroundings

Critical or sensitive period

a specific period of pregnancy when each organ of a fetus develops.

Placenta

a structure connected to the uterus that provides nourishment and oxygen from the mother to the developing embryo via the umbilical cord.

Teratogen

any environmental agent-biological, chemical, or physical- that causes damage to the developing embryo or fetus.

True o Biological milestones, such as puberty, tend to be universal, but social milestones, such as the age when children begin formal schooling, are not necessarily universal; instead they affect most individuals in a particular culture. o For example, in developed countries children begin school around 5 or 6 years old, but in developing countries, like Nigeria, children often enter school at an advanced age, if at all (Huebler, 2005; United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization [UNESCO], 2013).

True or False: Not all normative events are universal, meaning they are not experienced by all individuals across all cultures.

true

True or False: during childhood The size of our brain increases rapidly. o During early childhood (ages 3-6), the frontal lobe grows rapidly. (lobe associated with planning, reasoning, memory, and impulse control). o Through the elementary school years, the frontal, temporal, occipital, and parietal lobes all grow in size.

True

True or False: • As motor skills develop, there are certain developmental milestones that young children should achieve. For each milestone there is an average age, as well as a range of ages in which the milestone should be reached.

True

True or false: • In Piaget's view, around the same time children develop object permanence, they also begin to exhibit stranger anxiety, which is a fear of unfamiliar people. Babies may demonstrate this by crying and turning away from a stranger, by clinging to a caregiver, or by attempting to reach their arms toward familiar faces such as parents. Stranger anxiety results when a child is unable to assimilate the stranger into an existing schema; therefore, she can't predict what her experience with that stranger will be like, which results in a fear response.

True

True or false: • Most everything the mother ingests, including food, liquid, and even medication, travels through the placenta to the fetus, hence the common phrase "eating for two." • Anything the mother is exposed to in the environment affects the fetus; if the mother is exposed to something harmful, the child can show life-long effects

Fetal Stage

Weeks 9-40 • When the organism is about 9 weeks old, the embryo is called the fetus. • At this stage, the fetus is about the size of a kidney bean and begins to take on the recognizable form of a human being as the "tail" begins to disappear. • From 9-12 weeks, the sex organs begin to differentiate. • At 16 weeks, the fetus is about 4.5 inches long, fingers and toes are fully developed, and fingerprints are visible • At 6 months (24 weeks), it weighs up to 1,4 pounds, hearing has developed, so the fetus can respond to sounds. Internal organs, such as lungs, heart, stomach, and intestines have formed enough that a fetus born prematurely at this point has a chance to survive outside the womb. • Throughout the fetal stage, the brain continues to grow and develop, nearly doubling in size from week 16 to 28. • Around 36 weeks, the fetus is almost ready for birth. • By week 37, all organ systems are developed enough that is could survive outside the womb without many of the risks associated with premature birth.

germinal embryonic fetal

What are the 3 stages of prenatal development

trust vs. mistrust

• According to Erikson, _____ is the basis of our development during infancy (birth to 12 months). o The primary task of this stage is ______ vs _________. o Infants are dependent upon their caregivers o so caregivers who are responsive and sensitive to their infant's needs help their baby to develop a sense of trust; their baby will see the world as a safe, predictable place. Unresponsive caregivers who do not meet their baby's needs can engender feelings of anxiety, fear, and mistrust; their baby may see the world as unpredictable.

8

• According to the psychosocial theory, we experience ___ stages of development over our lifespan, from infancy through late adulthood. At each stage there is a conflict, or task, we need to resolve. Failures to complete these tasks leads to feelings of inadequacy.

Normative Approach

• Across these three domains- physical, cognitive, and psychosocial- the _________to development is also discussed.

5 and 8 months

• Between __ and __ months, a child develops object permanence

industry vs inferiority

• During Elementary School ages (6-12), children face the task of _____ vs ______ o Children begin to compare themselves to their peers to see how they measure up. o They either develop a sense of pride and accomplishment over their schoolwork, sports, social activities, and family life, or they feel inferior and inadequate when they don't measure up.

Jean Piaget

• His theory of cognitive development holds that our cognitive abilities develop through specific stages, which exemplifies the discontinuity approach to development. o As we shift to a new stage, there is a distinct shift in how we think and reason. • Said that children develop schemata to help them understand the world

generatively vs stagnation

• Middle adulthood (40s to mid 60s) is a time tasked with _____ vs _______ o Generativity involves finding your life's work and contributing to the development of others, through activities such as volunteering, mentoring, and raising children. o Those who don't master this experience stagnation, having little connection with others and little interest in productivity and self-improvement.

language acquisition

• One well researched aspect of cognitive development is __________ o The order in which children learn language structures is consistent across children and cultures o Starting before birth babies begin to develop language and communication skills o Children communicate through gesturing long before they speak o During the early childhood years, children's vocabulary increases at a rapid rate Sometimes referred to as the vocabulary spurt

intimacy vs isolation

• People in early adulthood (20s through early 40s) are concerned with ____ vs _______ o Must have a strong sense of self before developing intimate relationships with others. o Adults who do not develop a positive self-concept in adolescence may experience feelings of loneliness and emotional isolation.

initiative vs guilt

• Preschool children (3-6) must resolve the task of ____ vs ________. o By learning to plan and achieve goals while interacting with others, preschool children can master this task. Those who do will develop self-confidence and feel a sense of purpose. Those who are unsuccessful at this stage—with their initiative misfiring or stifled—may develop feelings of guilt. How might over-controlling parents stifle a child's initiative?

universal

• Stage Theorists hold that the sequence of development is ______ o For example, in cross-cultural studies of language development, children from around the world reach language milestones in a similar sequence (Gleitman & Newport, 1995). Infants in all cultures coo before they babble. They begin babbling at about the same age and utter their first word around 12 months old

nature vs nurture

• The _____vs _______ debate seeks to understand how our personalities and traits are the product of our genetic makeup and biological factors, and how they are shaped by our environment, including our parents, peers, and culture.

sense of self

• The primary psychosocial milestone of childhood is the development of a positive __________

Carol Gilligan

• These ideas were not well received by ______, a research assistant of Kohlberg, who went on to develop her own ideas of moral development • In her groundbreaking book, In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women's Development, Gilligan (1982) criticized her former mentor's theory because it was based only on upper class White men and boys. She argued that women are not deficient in their moral reasoning—she proposed that males and females reason differently. Girls and women focus more on staying connected and the importance of interpersonal relationships. Therefore, in the Heinz dilemma, many girls and women respond that Heinz should not steal the medicine. Their reasoning is that if he steals the medicine, is arrested, and is put in jail, then he and his wife will be separated, and she could die while he is still in prison.