CHAP1,2

Quiz

1. Society is (A) a political entity (B) the same as culture or nation (C) limited by geographical boundaries (D) organized interaction of people sharing land and culture 2. Culture includes (A) only material things such as cars or jewelry (B) our thoughts, our beliefs, and our possessions (C) the land we share (D) only nonmaterial things such as values or beliefs 3. Which of the following types of societies came first? (A) industrial (B) agricultural (C) mass (D) horticultural and pastoral 4. Kissing a person on both cheeks when you first meet is a French (A) more (B) taboo (C) folkway (D) law 5. In a sociological sense, earning a 4.0 GPA makes you a deviant because (A) you only could have gotten that GPA by cheating (B) that GPA is not the norm (C) it alienates you from your peer group (D) it improves your status

What Is a Society?

According to sociologists, a society is a group of people with common territory, interaction, and culture. Social groups consist of two or more people who interact and identify with one another.

Healthcare

An understanding of changing demographics and culture is essential for keeping members of a society healthy. Some sociologists apply their knowledge to the field of healthcare. They might take the following kinds of jobs: Doctor Psychiatrist Marriage or family counselor

Anthropology

Anthropology concerns individual cultures in a society, rather than the society as a whole. Traditionally, it focuses on what might be termed "primitive" cultures, such as the Yanomamo people of the South American jungle, who live much the same way they did hundreds of years ago. Anthropologists place special emphasis on language, kinship patterns, and cultural artifacts.

Anticipatory Socialization

Anticipatory socialization occurs when we start learning new norms and values in anticipation of a role we'll occupy in the future. Making necessary adjustments in advance makes the actual transition into the new role easier. Also, by adopting some of the norms and values of a future role, we can evaluate whether that role will be right for us when the time comes to assume it. Example: A police officer who is about to begin working the night shift adjusts his sleeping habits several weeks before his start date. He goes to bed an hour later each evening, anticipating his new schedule of staying awake all night and sleeping during the day. Likewise, some couples live together before getting married to see whether they feel comfortable in that future role. They test the role of spouse before committing to it legally.

The birth of sociology

Auguste Comte (1798-1857), widely considered the "father of sociology," became interested in studying society because of the changes that took place as a result of the French Revolution and the Industrial Revolution. During the French Revolution, which began in 1789, France's class system changed dramatically. Aristocrats suddenly lost their money and status, while peasants, who had been at the bottom of the social ladder, rose to more powerful and influential positions. The Industrial Revolution followed on the heels of the French Revolution, unfolding in Western Europe throughout the 1800s. During the Industrial Revolution, people abandoned a life of agriculture and moved to cities to find factory jobs. They worked long hours in dangerous conditions for low pay. New social problems emerged and, for many decades, little was done to address the plight of the urban poor.

Culture

Culture is everything made, learned, or shared by the members of a society, including values, beliefs, behaviors, and material objects. Culture is learned, and it varies tremendously from society to society. We begin learning our culture from the moment we're born, as the people who raise us encourage certain behaviors and teach their version of right and wrong. Although cultures vary dramatically, they all consist of two parts: material culture and nonmaterial culture. Material Culture Material culture consists of the concrete, visible parts of a culture, such as food, clothing, cars, weapons, and buildings. Aspects of material culture differ from society to society. Here are a few features of modern material culture in the United States: Soy lattes CD burners Running shoes iPods Lifestyle magazines Organic vegetables Sport utility vehicles Example: One common form of material culture is jewelry that indicates a person's status as married. In American culture, people wear a metal band on the ring finger of the left hand to show that they are married. In smaller, nonindustrialized societies, everyone knows everyone else, so no such sign is needed. In certain parts of India, women wear a necklace to indicate that they are married. In Northern Europe, married people wear wedding bands on the right hand. Nonmaterial Culture Nonmaterial culture consists of the intangible aspects of a culture, such as values and beliefs. Nonmaterial culture consists of concepts and ideas that shape who we are and make us different from members of other societies. A value is a culturally approved concept about what is right or wrong, desirable or undesirable. Values are a culture's principles about how things should be and differ greatly from society to society. Example: In the United States today, many women value thinness as a standard of beauty. In Ghana, however, most people would consider American fashion models sickly and undesirable. In that culture and others, robustness is valued over skinniness as a marker of beauty. Cult of the Car Automobile ownership clearly illustrates the American value of material acquisition. Americans love cars, and society is constructed to accommodate them. We have a system of interstate roadways, convenient gas stations, and many car dealerships. Businesses consider where patrons will park, and architects design homes with spaces for one or more cars. A society that values the environment more than the material acquisition might refuse to build roadways because of the damage they might do to the local wildlife. Beliefs are specific ideas that people feel to be true. Values support beliefs. Example: Americans believe in freedom of speech, and they believe they should be able to say whatever they want without fear of reprisal from the government. Many Americans value freedom as the right of all people and believe that people should be left to pursue their lives the way they want with minimal interference from the government.

Culture

Culture: People of the same society share aspects of their culture, such as language or beliefs. Culture refers to the language, values, beliefs, behavior, and material objects that constitute a people's way of life. It is a defining element of society. Example: Some features of American culture are the English language, a democratic system of government, cuisine (such as hamburgers and corn on the cob), and a belief in individualism and freedom.

Economics

Economics focuses on the production and distribution of society's goods and services. Economists study why a society chooses to produce what it does, how money is exchanged, and how people interact and cooperate to produce goods.

Norms

Every society has expectations about how its members should and should not behave. A norm is a guideline or an expectation for behavior. Each society makes up its own rules for behavior and decides when those rules have been violated and what to do about it. Norms change constantly.

review questions

How did the domestication of plants and animals change society? The domestication of plants and animals by hunting and gathering societies led to the birth of horticultural and pastoral societies. Horticultural societies planted crops and were able to stay in one place until they had exhausted the soil. Pastoral societies relied on the domestication and breeding of animals for food, allowing people to live in areas where crops did not grow. Because these societies were able to produce more food than they needed, people were able to concentrate on tasks other than food gathering. Job specialization emerged. In the United States, fast-food chains are part of the material culture. What values do these fast-food chains reflect? What parts of our material culture reflect the opposite values? The popularity of fast-food chains in the United States demonstrates that Americans value speed and convenience over quality. The popularity of fast food shows that Americans favor instant gratification over sacrifice, even if what they are sacrificing is their health. Americans also don't value spending time at the dinner table as a family. On the other hand, Thanksgiving, a national holiday, stresses family and home-cooked food. Gyms and fitness equipment, meanwhile, reflect an American concern with fitness and health. Compare and contrast subculture and counterculture. A subculture is way of living that is different from, but not opposed to, the dominant culture. In a pluralistic society, such as the United States, there are many subcultures. Religion, occupation, political ideals, and sexual orientation can define a subculture. A counterculture is a subculture that opposes the dominant culture, rejecting its values. For example, in the 1960s and 1970s, hippies in the United States eschewed material possessions and the accumulation of wealth. How would you describe the dominant culture of the United States? What are some its values and beliefs? The dominant culture of the United States is that of white, middle-class, Protestants of northern European descent. The dominant culture consists of people who are the most powerful and/or the most numerous. In the case of the United States, men are still considered the dominant culture, even if they aren't numerically superior. Some of America's shared values are freedom, equality, hard work, persistence, success, separation of church and state, and belief in the American dream. Identify and describe a taboo in your culture. Why is that practice taboo? Is it taboo in other cultures? Having sex with a close relative is taboo in American culture. Sex with a close relative is viewed negatively because it can produce genetically defective offspring. In addition to being a taboo, incest between some family members is against the law. In isolated countries, or among European royalty, marriages between cousins is accepted, but most cultures frown on sex between closer relatives.

Socialization

In 1970, François Truffaut directed a movie called L'Enfant Sauvage (The Wild Child). It was allegedly a true story about two Frenchmen in the latter part of the eighteenth century who were walking in the countryside and came across a boy who appeared to be somewhere between six and eight years old. He couldn't speak, walk, or relate to humans. It seemed he had raised himself, perhaps with the help of certain animals. The two men took the boy to Paris, where a doctor worked with him intensively for many years. Eventually, the boy was able to function in French society. Unlike some species of animals, and unlike what we sometimes see in movies, we cannot raise ourselves—we must be raised by other people, who teach us language, manners, beliefs, and much more. What we learn from the people who raise us is called our socialization, and it's a learning process that helps prepare us for a place in adult life. Socialization doesn't end with the advent of adulthood. As we grow and mature, we become members of new groups and must learn new things in order to function in our new roles.

Hierarchy of Cultures

In societies where there are different kinds of people, one group is usually larger or more powerful than the others. Generally, societies consist of a dominant culture, subcultures, and countercultures. Dominant Culture The dominant culture in a society is the group whose members are in the majority or who wield more power than other groups. In the United States, the dominant culture is that of white, middle-class, Protestant people of northern European descent. There are more white people here than African Americans, Latinos, Asian Americans, or Native Americans, and there are more middle-class people than there are rich or poor people. The Majority Doesn't Always Rule A group does not have to be a majority to be a dominant culture. In South Africa, there are four times as many black Africans as white Africans of European descent. Yet under a system of racial segregation and domination called apartheid, which was legally in effect from 1948 to 1991, the white population managed to hold political and economic power. South African whites thus were the dominant culture. Subculture A subculture is a group that lives differently from, but not opposed to, the dominant culture. A subculture is a culture within a culture. For example, Jews form a subculture in the largely Christian United States. Catholics also form a subculture, since the majority of Americans are Protestant. Members of these subcultures do belong to the dominant culture but also have a material and nonmaterial culture specific to their subcultures. Religion is not the only defining aspect of a subculture. The following elements can also define a subculture:

interaction

Interaction: Members of a society must come in contact with one another. If a group of people within a country has no regular contact with another group, those groups cannot be considered part of the same society. Geographic distance and language barriers can separate societies within a country. Example: Although Islam was practiced in both parts of the country, the residents of East Pakistan spoke Bengali, while the residents of West Pakistan spoke Urdu. Geographic distance, language differences, and other factors proved insurmountable. In 1971, the nation split into two countries, with West Pakistan assuming the name Pakistan and East Pakistan becoming Bangladesh. Within each newly formed society, people had a common culture, history, and language, and distance was no longer a factor

International Relations and Diplomacy

Maintaining good relations with other societies is always important. Sociologists who specialize in international relations must understand the intricacies of how their society interacts with others. Interest in international relations might lead to such jobs as: Diplomat Public relations representative Government communications worker

Education

Many people study sociology because they want to develop more effective ways to educate a society's youth or because they want to continue learning and teaching about sociology itself. Such people might hold the following types of jobs: K-12 teacher College professor Educational policy-maker

Crime and Deviance

Many sociologists focus their research on understanding the roots of criminal and deviant behavior. Sociologists who focus on crime and deviance may conduct studies of juvenile delinquents, female criminals, or other subgroups of offenders. A background in this type of sociology prepares people for careers such as: Law enforcement officer Attorney Prison administrator

Status and Roles

Most people associate status with the prestige of a person's lifestyle, education, or vocation. According to sociologists, status describes the position a person occupies in a particular setting. We all occupy several statuses and play the roles that may be associated with them. A role is the set of norms, values, behaviors, and personality characteristics attached to a status. An individual may occupy the statuses of student, employee, and club president and play one or more roles with each one. Example: Status as student Role 1: Classroom: Attending class, taking notes, and communicating with the professor Role 2: Fellow student: Participating in study groups, sharing ideas, quizzing other students Status as employee Role 1: Warehouse: Unloading boxes, labeling products, restocking shelves Role 2: Customer service: Answering questions, solving problems, researching information Status as club president Role 1: Administrative: Running club meetings, delegating tasks to club members Role 2: Public: Distributing flyers, answering questions, planning community volunteer activities At any given time, the individual described above can also occupy the statuses of athlete, date, confidant, or a number of others, depending on the setting. With each change of status, the individual plays a different role or roles. Society's Definition of "Roles" Societies decide what is considered appropriate role behavior for different statuses. For example, every society has the "mother" status. However, some societies consider it inappropriate for a mother to assume the role of authority in the family. Other societies ascribe lots of power to the status of mother. In some societies, students are expected to be completely obedient to teachers. In American society, the student role involves asking the teacher questions and even challenging the teacher's statements. Role Conflict Role conflict results from the competing demands of two or more roles that vie for our time and energy. The more statuses we have, and the more roles we take on, the more likely we are to experience role conflict. A member of a nonindustrialized society generally has just a few statuses, such as spouse, parent, and villager. A typical middle-class American woman, meanwhile, probably has many statuses, and therefore many roles. She may be a mother, wife, neighbor, member of the PTA, employee, boss, town council president, and part-time student. Because people in modernized societies have so many roles, they are more likely than people in nonindustrialized societies to experience role conflict. Example: A working father is expected at work on time but is late because one of his children is sick. His roles as father and employee are then in conflict. A role for his father status dictates that he care for his sick child, while a role for his employee status demands that he arrive at work on time

Types of sociology

Not all universities approach sociology the same way, and the new science evolved differently depending on where it was taught and who was teaching it. The two major types of sociology that emerged were qualitative sociology and quantitative sociology. Today, most universities use both qualitative and quantitative methods of inquiry, and one method is not necessarily better than the other.

What Sociologists Do

People with training in sociology pursue a variety of different career and research paths. Because "society" is such a broad field of study, a background in sociology helps support dozens of different career choices. What follows are several broad areas in which sociologists frequently choose to apply their skills and interests.

Pluralism

Pluralism The United States is a society composed of many groups of people, some of whom originally belonged to other societies. Sociologists consider the United States a pluralistic society, meaning it is built of many groups. As societies modernize, they attract people from countries where there may be economic hardship, political unrest, or religious persecution. Since the industrialized countries of the West were the first to modernize, these countries tend to be more pluralistic than countries in other parts of the world. Many people came to the United States between the mid-nineteenth and mid-twentieth centuries. Fleeing poverty and religious persecution, these immigrants arrived in waves from Europe and Asia and helped create the pluralism that makes the United States unique.

Pluralism in the neighborhood

Pluralism in the Neighborhood Both cities and regions reflect pluralism in the United States. Most major American cities have areas in which people from particular backgrounds are concentrated, such as Little Italy in New York, Chinatown in San Francisco, and Little Havana in Miami. Regionally, people of Mexican descent tend to live in those states that border Mexico. Individuals of Cuban descent are concentrated in Florida. Spanish-speaking people from other Caribbean islands, such as Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic, are more likely to live in the Northeast.

Political Science

Political science concerns the governments of various societies. It considers what kind of government a society has, how it formed, and how individuals attain positions of power within a particular government. Political science also concerns the relation of people in a society to whatever form of government they have.

Psychology

Psychology takes the individual out of his or her social circumstances and examines the mental processes that occur within that person. Psychologists study the human brain and how it functions, considering issues such as memory, dreams, learning, and perception.

The Other Social Sciences

Social sciences concern people's relationships and interactions with one another. Sociology, with its emphasis on social life, falls into this category. A multidisciplinary field, sociology draws from a variety of other social sciences, including anthropology, political science, psychology, and economics.

Primary Socialization

Socialization is the process whereby we learn to become competent members of a group. Primary socialization is the learning we experience from the people who raise us. In order for children to grow and thrive, caregivers must satisfy their physical needs, including food, clothing, and shelter. Caregivers must also teach children what they need to know in order to function as members of a society, including norms, values, and language. If children do not receive adequate primary socialization, they tend not to fare well as adults. Developmental Stages Researchers have different theories about how children learn about themselves and their roles in society. Some of these theories contradict each other, and each is criticized for different reasons, but each still plays an important role in sociological thought. Freud's Theory of Personality Development Austrian physician Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, believed that basic biological instincts combine with societal factors to shape personalities. Freud posited that the mind consists of three parts that must interact properly for a person to function well in society. If any one of the three parts becomes dominant, personal and social problems may result. The three parts are the id, the superego, and the ego. Id: According to Freud, the id develops first. A newborn's mind consists only of the id, which is responsible for the satisfaction of physical desires. The id represents a human being's most primitive desires, and a person ruled only by the id would do everything strictly for his or her own pleasure, breaking societal norms in the process and risking punishment. Superego: As children move from infancy into childhood, their minds develop a superego, or conscience, which encourages conformity to societal norms and values. Someone with a hyperactive superego would be confined within a too-rigid system of rules, which would inhibit his or her ability to live normally. Ego: A healthy mind also consists of the ego, or the part of the mind that resolves the conflicts between the id and the superego. Normally, the ego balances the desires of the id and superego, but when it fails, a person may have difficulty making decisions, which can lead to behavioral problems. Mead's Theory of Social Behaviorism Sociologist George Herbert Mead believed that people develop self-images through interactions with other people. He argued that the self, which is the part of a person's personality consisting of self-awareness and self-image, is a product of social experience. He outlined four ideas about how the self develops: The self develops solely through social experience. Mead rejected Freud's notion that personality is determined partly by biological drives. Social experience consists of the exchange of symbols. Mead emphasized the particularly human use of language and other symbols to convey meaning. Knowing others' intentions requires imagining the situation from their perspectives. Mead believed that social experience depends on our seeing ourselves as others do, or, as he coined it, "taking the role of the other." Understanding the role of the other results in self-awareness. Mead posited that there is an active "I" self and an objective "me" self. The "I" self is active and initiates action. The "me" self continues, interrupts, or changes action depending on how others respond. Mead believed that the key to self-development is understanding the role of the other. He also outlined steps in the process of development from birth to adulthood: Cooley's Theory of the Looking-Glass Self Like Mead, sociologist Charles Horton Cooley believed that we form our self-images through interaction with other people. He was particularly interested in how significant others shape us as individuals. A significant other is someone whose opinions matter to us and who is in a position to influence our thinking, especially about ourselves. A significant other can be anyone, such as a parent, sibling, spouse, or best friend.

Gender Socialization

Society expects different attitudes and behaviors from boys and girls. Gender socialization is the tendency for boys and girls to be socialized differently. Boys are raised to conform to the male gender role, and girls are raised to conform to the female gender or role. A gender role is a set of behaviors, attitudes, and personality characteristics expected and encouraged of a person based on his or her sex. Influence of Biology Experts disagree on whether differences between males and females result from innate, biological differences or from differences in the ways that boys and girls are socialized. In other words, experts disagree on whether differences between men and women are due to nature, nurture, or some combination of both. Example: There are some significant differences between female and male brains. The language center in the male brain is usually in the dominant (usually left) hemisphere, whereas females use both hemispheres of the brain to process language. This may explain why females seem to have stronger communication skills and relish interpersonal communication more than males and why, on average, girls learn to speak and read earlier than boys. Influence of Family Every culture has different guidelines about what is appropriate for males and females, and family members may socialize babies in gendered ways without consciously following that path. For example, in American society, the color pink is associated with girls and the color blue with boys. Even as tiny babies, boys and girls are dressed differently, according to what is considered "appropriate" for their respective sexes. Even parents who strive to achieve a less "gendered" parenting style unconsciously reinforce gender roles. Example: The toys and games parents select for children are often unconsciously intended to socialize them into the appropriate gender roles. Girls receive dolls in an attempt to socialize them into future roles as mothers. Since women are expected to be more nurturing than men, giving a girl a doll teaches her to care for it and fosters the value of caring for others. When boys receive dolls, they are likely to be action figures designed to bring out the alleged aggressive tendencies in boys. Influence in Education As children enter the educational system, traditional expectations for boys and girls continue. In the past, much research focused on how teachers were shortchanging girls in the classroom. Teachers would focus on boys, calling on them more and challenging them. Because boys were believed to be more analytical, teachers assumed they would excel in math and science. Teachers encouraged them to go into careers that require a lot of math and science, such as computer science or engineering. Research from the late 1990s, however, indicates that the current educational climate is failing boys. Boys are falling behind girls in school. The dropout rate for boys is rising. More boys are being diagnosed as learning disabled. The number of boys applying to college has declined. Some sociologists argue that current teaching methods favor girls' learning styles. Girls mature more quickly than boys and are able to focus and concentrate in class more easily. Example: Studies show that boys are more physically active than girls. This difference is greater when children are in elementary school. Boys may be less able to sit still during a lesson. They are often sent out of class as disruptive, which puts them behind in the schoolwork and can reinforce their problems in the classroom. What's So Funny About Male Nurses? Meet the Parents (2000), a movie starring Ben Stiller, got laughs nationwide for presenting a main character who was a male nurse. The fact that a male pursuing a career in nursing still seems laughable shows how ingrained some gender roles still are. Influence on Career Choice If cultural expectations dictate that girls are more compassionate and nurturing than boys, then parents, teachers, and counselors will steer them toward fields that require patience and concern for other people, such as nursing, social work, or elementary school teaching. Though a girl who expresses a desire to become a nuclear engineer would probably no longer be explicitly discouraged, a boy with a similar goal would probably encounter more encouragement. Example: Women working in traditionally male occupations often hit a glass ceiling, an invisible barrier that keeps women from reaching executive positions. Men who work in traditionally female occupations, such as nursing, social work, or elementary school teaching, are often viewed as more qualified than women. These men often benefit from a glass escalator; they are paid more and promoted more quickly than their female counterparts.

Defining Sociology

Sociology is the systematic and scientific study of human social life. Sociologists study people as they form groups and interact with one another. The groups they study may be small, such as married couples, or large, such as a subculture of suburban teenagers. Sociology places special emphasis on studying societies, both as individual entities and as elements of a global perspective.

Social Welfare

Some people pursue degrees in sociology because they want to change society for the better. They study problems such as poverty, prejudice, and world hunger and attempt to find solutions. Jobs that relate to these kinds of interests include: Social worker Child welfare worker Adoption agency worker Foreign aid worker Peace Corps/VISTA volunteer Clergy

Territory:

Territory: Most countries have formal boundaries and territory that the world recognizes as theirs. However, a society's boundaries don't have to be geopolitical borders, such as the one between the United States and Canada. Instead, members of a society, as well as nonmembers, must recognize particular land as belonging to that society. Example: The society of the Yanomamo has fluid but definable land boundaries. Located in a South American rain forest, Yanamamo territory extends along the border of Brazil and Venezuela. While outsiders would have a hard time determining where Yanomamo land begins and ends, the Yanomamo and their neighbors have no trouble discerning which land is theirs and which is not.

Resocialization

The primary socialization received in childhood is just one part of the lifelong socialization process. Adults go through a process of resocialization, which is the learning of new norms and values that occurs when they join a new group or when life circumstances change dramatically. Learning new norms and values enables people to adapt, though newly learned things may contradict what was previously learned. Though senility and certain diseases associated with old age can impair a person's ability to learn and adapt to new situations, many adults experience change throughout life. A new job, the loss of friends or a spouse, children leaving home, and retirement are all milestones that require resocialization. Most instances of resocialization are mild modifications, such as adapting to a new work environment. Extreme forms of the process can include joining the military, going to prison, or otherwise separating from mainstream society. The Social Construction of Life Stages Sociologists generally divide a person's life into five stages: childhood, adolescence, adulthood, old age, and dying. These stages are socially constructed, which means that different societies apply different definitions and assumptions to each stage. For example, in the United States, childhood is a relatively carefree time during which young people expect to have time to play and to receive care from adults. In other societies, income generated by the work children do is very important to the family, and childhood, like other life stages, is a time of work and struggle. The Workplace The workplace is an agent of socialization—in this case, resocialization. A new job brings with it new norms and values, including the following: What papers to fill out What equipment to use What tasks to complete and when to complete them When to arrive at work When to take a break When to leave The employing organization also has its own values. The socialization process involves learning how strictly the company enforces work-related norms, such as whether it's acceptable for people of different job levels to fraternize outside of working hours, or whether a very late arrival will incur some kind of punishment. During resocialization, people learn how to modify behavior to fit the new situation. Total Institutions Most Americans are socialized to think for themselves and make their own decisions about daily tasks. That changes when they are resocialized by what sociologist Erving Goffman labeled a total institution. A total institution is an organization or setting that has the following characteristics: Residents are not free to leave. All actions are determined and monitored by authority figures. Contact with outsiders is carefully controlled. The environment is highly standardized. Rules dictate when, where, and how members do things. Individuality is discouraged. Examples of total institutions include prisons, mental hospitals, and the military. In these total institutions, part of the resocialization process includes the loss of some decision-making freedom. The military decides what its soldiers wear, how they spend their time, and when and what they eat. To be promoted to a higher rank, they must demonstrate that they have been resocialized and have successfully adapted to the military's norms and values. The Drama of Life Goffman also developed the concept of dramaturgy , the idea that life is like a never-ending play in which people are actors. Goffman believed that when we are born, we are thrust onto a stage called everyday life, and that our socialization consists of learning how to play our assigned roles from other people. We enact our roles in the company of others, who are in turn enacting their roles in interaction with us. He believed that whatever we do, we are playing out a role on the stage of life.

Introduction

The society in which we live determines everything from the food we eat to the choices we make. The word society comes from the latin root socius, meaning "companion" or "being with others." A society consists of people who share a territory, who interact with each other, and who share a culture. Some societies are, in fact, groups of people united by friendship or common interests. Our respective societies teach us how to behave, what to believe, and how we'll be punished if we don't follow the laws or customs in place. Sociologists study the way people learn about their own society's cultures and how they discover their place within those cultures. They also examine the ways in which people from differing cultures interact and sometimes clash—and how mutual understanding and respect might be reached.

Sociology review

What Is a Society? A society is a group of people with shared territory, interaction, and culture. Some societies are made up of people who are united by friendship or common interests. Some societies are merely social groups, two or more people who interact and identify with one another. Every society must have territory, or an area to call its own. Members of a society must interact with one another on a regular basis. Culture is a defining element of a society. Some societies are pluralistic societies composed of many different kinds of people, some of whom belonged to other societies. The United States is a pluralistic society. In a pluralistic society, members retain some ethnic traditions and beliefs from their old society. In order to fit into their new society, however, members must give up some of these original traditions. This process is called assimilation. In a truly pluralistic society, no one group is officially considered more influential than another. Types of Societies Societies have evolved over many millennia. The different types of societies include hunting and gathering, horticultural, pastoral, agricultural or agrarian, industrial, and postindustrial. In hunting and gathering societies, members survive by gathering plants and hunting for food. Members of horticultural societies use hand tools to raise crops. Members of pastoral societies rely on domestication and breeding of animals for food. Members of agricultural or agrarian societies raise crops by harnessing an animal to a plow. In industrial societies, members use machinery to replace human labor in the production of goods. As fewer people are needed for agriculture, societies become urbanized, which means that the majority of the population lives within commuting distance of a major city. Postindustrial societies feature an economy based on services and technology rather than production. A mass society is a large, impersonal society that values individual achievement over kinship ties. Norms Norms are guidelines, standards of behavior that change depending on context and location. The four types of norms are folkways, mores, laws, and taboos. Deviance is the violation of a norm, whether for good or bad. Societies discourage deviance with social controls, such as positive sanctions (rewards for approved behavior) and negative sanctions (punishments for disapproved behavior). Status and Roles We all occupy several statuses, or positions in particular settings, and play roles based on them. A role is a set of norms, values, and behaviors attached to a status. When we are expected to fulfill more than one role at the same time, we can experience role conflict. Culture Culture is everything made, learned, or shared by the members of a society. Although cultures vary dramatically, they all are composed of material culture (physical things) and nonmaterial culture (intangible aspects such as beliefs and values). A dominant culture is the culture held by the majority or the most powerful. It usually maintains economic, political, and cultural power. A subculture is a culture within the dominant culture. The subculture does not oppose the dominant culture but does have its own material and nonmaterial cultures that the dominant culture does not share. A counterculture actively opposes the dominant culture. Ethnocentrism is the tendency to view other cultures by the standards of one's own culture. Ethnocentrists often consider their cultures superior to other cultures. The opposite of ethnocentrism, cultural relativism, means interpreting other cultures based on one's own standards. We experience culture shock when the practices of other cultures seem unfamiliar, scary, or shocking. William Ogburn coined the term culture lag, which occurs when material and nonmaterial culture develop at different rates. For example, culture lag sometimes leaves us with technology we're not yet sure how to use. Cultural diffusion occurs when an item of culture spreads throughout a culture or from one culture to another.