Chapter 1-15
charter
A document that, like a constitution, specifies the basic policies, procedures, and institutions of a municipality.
confederation
A form of an international organization that brings several autonomous states together for a common purpose, such as the UN, the EU (European Union), or the States under the Articles of Confederation.
Unit Rule
A traditional party practice under which the majority of a state delegation can force the minority to vote for its candidate
Superdelegate
Delegate slot to the Democratic Party's national convention that is reserved for an elected party official
political culture
commonly shared attitudes, beliefs, and core values about how government should operate
dual federalism
System of federalism that strictly separates federal power (ex. foreign relations) and state power (ex. protect against crime). Each level of government is dominant within its own sphere.
trial court
court of original jurisdiction where cases begin
appellate court
court that generaly reviews only findings of law made by lower courts
Legislative courts
courts by congress for specialized purposes, such as the Court of Military Appeals
Census
The U.S. Constitution requires this, which entails the counting of all Americans, be conducted every ten years.
Judicial Review
courts determine whether acts of Congress and the executive are constitutional
free media
coverage of a candidate's campaign by the news media
administrative adjudication
a quasi-judicial process in which a bureaucratic agency settles disputes between two parties in a manner similar to the way courts resolve disputes
Press Briefing
a relatively restricted session between a press secretary or aide and the press
writ of centiorari
a request for the Court to order up the records from a lower court to review the case
Pardon
an executive grant providing restoration of all rights and privileges of citizenship to a specific individual charged or convicted of a crime.
Executive privilege
an implied presidential power that allows the president to refuse to disclose information regarding confidential conversations or national security to Congress or the judiciary.
Privileges and Immunities Clause
when traveling a person must be treated the same as a citizen of the state they are traveling in, keeps states from discriminating against residents of another state
Other name for enumerate powers
delegated or expressed
communications director
develops the overall media strategy for the candidate, blending the free press coverage with the paid TV, radio, and mail media
Mayflower Compact
document written by the Pilgrims while at sea enumerating the scope of their government and its expectations of citizens
public funds
donations from the general tax revenues to the campaigns of qualifying presidential candidates
matching funds
donations to presidential campaigns from the federal government that are determined by the amount of private funds a qualifying candidate raises
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
federal agency created under the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to monitor and enforce the bans on employment discrimination
constitutional courts
federal courts specifically created by the US Constitution or by Congress pursuant to its authority in article III
Explain the supremacy clause
federal law always wins over conflicts between all state and local laws.
political action committee (PAC)
federally mandated, officially registered fund-raising committee that represents interest groups in the political process
voter canvass
process by which a campaign reaches individual voters, either by door-to-door solicitation or by telephone
senatorial courtesy
process by which presidents generally defer election of district court judges to the choice of senators of their own party who represent the state where the vacancy occurs
6th amendment
provides for speedy and public trials, impartial juries, confront witnesses, and the right to counsel
campaign manager
the individual who travels with the candidate and coordinates the many different aspects of the campaign
Media Effects
the influence of news sources on public opinion
original jurisdiction
the jurisdiction that hear a case first, usually in a trial. These courts determine the facts of a case
trust relationship
the legal obligation of the federal government to protect the interests of american indian tribes.
city council
the legislature in a city government.
New Deal
the name given to the program of "Relief, Recovery, Reform" begun by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1933 to bring the United States out of the Great Depression.
popular sovereignty
the notion that the ultimate authority in society rests with the people
Organizational Campaign
the part of a political campaign involved in fund-raising, literature distribution, and all other activities not directly involving the candidate
soft money
the virtually unregulated money funneled by individuals and political committees through state and local parties
Framing
the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments
indirect democracy
(aka representative democracy) a system of government that gives citizens the opportunity to vote for representatives who will work on their behalf
Network
(broadcasting) a communication system consisting of a group of broadcasting stations that all transmit the same programs
Amicus curiae
"Friend of the Court" brief submitted to the Court by a person/group with an interest in the outcome of a case (person/group is not a party to the case)
amicus curiae
"friend of the court" amici may file briefs or even appear to argue their interests orally before the court
14th Amendment
(1) All persons born in the U.S. are citizens; (2) no person can be deprived of life, liberty or property without DUE PROCESS OF LAW; (3) no state can deprive a person of EQUAL PROTECTION of the laws. Second of three "Reconstruction Amendments" passed after Civil War.
25th Amendment
(1) Succession of VP if president dies or become incapable to do his job. (2) if there is no VP, president must appoint one, and Senate must approve with a 2/3 majority vote.
Crossover Voting
Participation in the primary if a party with which the voter is not affiliated
how Depart. Homeland Security 2004 is example of why public sees bureaucracy as bloated and ineffective
-Attorney General John Ashcroft and FBI Director Robert Mueller stated in press conference that terrorist attack would happen in next few months -Secretary Ridge had downplayed increased risks of terrorism that morning, first he heard about it was what he saw on news -comments undermined national gov efforts to assure citizens of safety -demonstrates unorganized structure, rife with problems
7. War on Poverty
-Equal Employment Opportunity Commission )EEOC) 1965 -Department of Housing and Urban Development -Department of Transportation >increase in presidential power and ability to persuade Congress that new agencies would be effective to solve social problems
Articles of Confederation
1st Constitution of the U.S. 1781-1788 (weaknesses-no executive, no judicial, no power to tax, no power to regulate trade)
3. railroads
-Interstate Commerce Commission, first independent regulatory commission; appt. but not removed easily, in response to public outcries over extremely high rates charged by railroad companies -Roosevelt --> department of Commerce and Labor -Federal Trade Commission (protect small business)
1. changes to bureaucracy during Clinton administration 2. why did this trend suffer backlash during Bush's term
-President's Task Force on Reinventing Gov. cut size of federal workforce, halved growing number of federal regulations, set customer service standards to direct agencies to put the people they serve first -after 9/11, though his initial attempt to decrease the size of gov., opposite happened; creation of additional offices and federal programs, Department of Homeland Security
Establishment clause
1st amendment, it prohibits the national government from establishing a national religion
which officials are members of the Cabinet
-VP, heads of all the departments, (plus EPA, OMB,Office of National Drug Control Policy, US Trade Representative, president's chief of staff make up formal Cabinet
independent regulatory commissions (list 3)
-agencies created by Congress to exist outside the major departments to regulate a specific economic activity or interest -ex: National Labor Relations Board, Federal Reserve Board, Federal Communications Commission, the Securities and Exchange Commission
Independent regulatory commission (guidelines)
-an agency created by Congress that is generally concerned with a specific aspect of the economy -commission members appointed by the president and hold jobs for fixed terms, but not removable by the president unless they fail to uphold their oaths of office
Weber's theory of bureaucracies
-bureaucracies were a rational way for complex societies to organize themselves -model bureaucracies have: chain of command, division of labor, clear lines of authority, goal orientation, impersonality (equal treatment based on merit), productivity
government corporations (plus 3 examples)
-businesses established by Congress that perform functions that could be provided by private businesses (such as the US Postal Service -ex: Amtrak, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, US Postal Service, Tennessee Valley Authority?
how is independence of the boards of regulatory commissions provided for
-cannot be easily removed by the president -1935 US Supreme Court ruled that in creating independent commissions, Congress intended they be independent panels of experts as far removed as possible from immediate political pressure
Free exercise clause
1st amendment. It prohibits the U.S. Government from interfering with a citizen's right to practice his or her religion
clientele agencies p.329
-departments organized to foster and promote the interests of a given social or economic group -ex: Department of Agriculture, Education, Energy, Labor, and Veterans Affairs, and the Bureau of Indian Affairs in the Department of the Interior, the Department of Labor's Women's Bureau
2. civil war
-employees added was nation prepared for war -Lincoln created Department of Agriculture in 1862 (1889 full Cabinet status) to deal with poor harvests and distribution problems -Pension Office 1866 pay benefits to Union veterans -Justice department 1870
how did each increase size of bur. 1. Post office
-forced to expand to meet needs of growing and westward-expanding population -Andrew Jackson removed Post Office from jurisdiction of the Department of the Treasury in 1829, made postmaster general to Cabinet rank
4. 16th Amendment
-gave Congress authority to implement federal income tax to supplement national treasury, provided infusion of funds to support new federal agencies, services, and governmental programs
independent executive agencies (list 3)
-governmental units that closely resemble a Cabinet department but have a narrower area of responsibility (such as the Central Intelligence Agency) and are not part of any Cabinet department -ex: NASA, Environmental Protection Agency, Central Intelligence Agency
5. New Deal
-hundreds of new agencies to regulate business practices and aspects of economy -Roosevelt and Congress enacted far-ranging economic legislation -mood change; support these moves as Americans change idea about proper role of gov. and provision of gov. agencies
Hatch Act (and changes in 1993)
-law enacted in 1939 to prohibit civil servants from taking activist roles in partisan campaigns; this act prohibited federal employees from making political contributions, working for a particular party, or campaigning for a particular candidate
1. describe Title IX 2. challenges to it since its inception (sports, university involved, Bush's actions)
-prohibits discrimination against girls and women in federally funded education, including athletic programs - Brown tried to cut two women varsity sport programs, US district court refused this to happen, upheld by US court of appeals -National Wrestling Coaches Association filed suit that Title IX guidelines force universities to discriminate against low-profile men's sports such as wrestling, Bush asked court to dismiss this -commission appointed by Bush in 2003 recommended to secretary of education Title IX requirements for women in athletics be weakened to account for perceived differences in interest in athletics between genders, major protest from women
6. GI Bill
-provided college loans for returning veterans and reduced mortgage rates so they could buy homes -Veterans Housing Authority loans to buy houses, but had to meet certain specification (more regulation) -role in new areas such as affordable- middle class housing
how has bureaucratic decision-making gone from iron triangles to issue networks
-still include agency officials, members of Congress, interest groups, but also lawyers, consultants, academics, public relation specialists, sometimes the courts -always changing, adaptation to increasing complexity of political domains****
DECENTRALIZED, FRAGMENTED PARTY COALITIONS
1. The decentralized policymaking system allowed these local parties to work together to elect national leaders while going their own way on matters closer to home. 2. National leaders could maintain diverse, unwieldy coalitions because many of the factions within them had little contact with one another except when choosing the party's presidential candidate.
national party conventions民主党全国代表大会
1. The national convention： promoted as a more democratic alternative to the discredited破坏 congressional caucus, allowing much broader popular participation in making presidential nominations.用一种民主的手段去破坏caucus，让更多人发言来决定总统候选人。就是想要毁掉强无敌的caucuses，凭什么你几个成员就可以主导所有人的意见，那岂不是好胖胖 But it also was an eminently显著地 practical device for solving problems of conflict and coordination that stand in the path to the White House. The convention was the occasion for assembling, and later refurbishing刷新, the national party coalition. It provided a forum讨论的地方 for doing the politicking谈论政治 that convinced diverse party factions to agree to unite behind a single presidential ticket—without necessarily agreeing on anything else.提供一个地方让大家谈论政治观点，让多样化的政党在一个候选人的背后团结起来，而又不同强迫去同意别人的意见 意义：In effect, the parties solved the problem of free riding endemic to mass electorates选民 by making participation exciting and fun. 2. The spoils腐败 system： Parties pursue a collective good: victory for their candidates and policies. All who prefer the winner benefit from the party's victory whether or not they contribute to it. Thus, without some prospect of private reward for party activists as well, the free-rider problem would have left parties stillborn. Intensified party competition and put a heavy premium on winning.很严重的free rider Positive side: putting victory ahead of principle made parties open and inclusive包含的. For a time, broad national coalitions helped manage the dangerous intersectional conflict over slavery and other divisive issues. The high stakes also inspired imaginative efforts to mobilize动员 the first mass electorate选民 in history. 好处是开放与包容，国际联合解决奴隶制问题并一致选民。 Negative side: the desire to win contributed to corruption, moral myopia缺乏远见 regarding slavery, and public cynicism玩世不恭 about the honesty and motives of politicians. In either case, the Democrats and Whigs of the second party system set the pattern for the future: every successful American party has cared more about winning elections than about furthering a consistent set of principles.坏处是对奴隶制缺乏远见，不诚信，对于保持公众一致，更想赢。 结果： Principled conflict is often a threat to party coalitions. Established party politicians put unity first because their careers depend on it, but voters and activists have no such stake and may care very deeply about the positions a party takes on controversial issues.But both parties had northern and southern wings and so were badly split by the slavery issue. When the extension of slavery became the dominant national issue, the coalitions that formed the second party system fell apart. For the first and only time in U.S. history, a third party emerged to supplant排挤 one of the two dominant parties.政党都很害怕意见不一致，但是投票者只在意政党对于有争议看法的地位。对于奴隶制，两党意见不同。当加大对奴隶制的关注后，第二政党体系瓦解，第三政党出现取代了两党中一党的地位。
three ways each Branch can make agencies more accountable
1. executive control (President, with Congress approval, can reorganize bureaucracy, change annual budget requests, executive orders 2. Congressional Control (creates departments, determines functions, expand/ contract discretion, confirm appt., hearings and evaluations, power to the purse) 3. judicial control (injunctions or orders, agencies have to give individuals due process rights, litigation
Dillon's Rule
A court ruling that local governments do not have any inherent sovereignty but instead must be authorized by state government.
how large is the bureaucracy
1.8 million civilian employees **** employed directly by the president or his advisers or in independent agencies, additional 2 million in military -1,149 civilian agencies
Declaration of Independence
1776 document written by Thomas Jefferson outlining reasons for the colonies to break the ties with England
What fraction of the houses of congress is necessary to approve a proposed amendment?
2/3 of both houses
What fraction of both houses must vote to override a veto?
2/3 of the House (art. 1, section 7-how bills become laws)
How old must a representative be to be elected?
25 years old
What fraction of the states must approve a proposed amendment?
3/4 of the states
How old does someone have to be to be a senator?
30years old
What are the requirements to be president?
35 requirement, natural born citizen, live in the US for at least 14 years.
How many states were required to ratify the constitution before it would take effect?
9 states
privileges and immunities clause
A clause in Article IV of the Constitution; prevents a state from treating citizens of other states in a discriminatory manner. Additionally, a right of interstate travel may plausibly be inferred from the clause.
Federalist Papers
A collection of 85 articles written by Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison under the name "Publius" to defend the Constitution in detail.
Mandate
A command, indicated by an electorate's votes, for the elected officials to carry out their platforms
Writ of habeas corpus
A court order in which a judge requires authorities to prove that a prisoner is being held lawfully and that allows the prisoner to be freed if the judge is not persuaded by the government's case.
media consultant
a professional who produces candidate's television, radio, and print advertisements
Anti-Federalists
A group who opposed the ratification of the Constitution in 1787. They opposed a strong central government (tyranny) and supported states' rights. "I smell a rat!"
Selective incorporation
A judicial doctrine whereby most but not all of the protections found in the Bill of Rights are made applicable to the states via the due process clause of the 14th amendment
Ex Post Facto
A law that makes an act criminal although the act was legal when it was committed
Bills of Attainder
A law that punishes a person accused of a crime without a trial or a fair hearing in court
bill of attainder
A legislative act by Congress finding a person guilty of treason or felony without a trial.
Random Sampling
A method of poll selection that gives each person in a group the same chance of being selected.
Polemic
A political argument. The Declaration of Independence is an example.
Closed Primary
A primary election in which only a party's registered voters are eligible to vote
Open Primary
A primary in which party members,independents, and sometimes members of the other party are allowed to vote
Regional Primary
A proposed system in which the country would be divided into five or six geographical areas and all states in each region would hold their presidential primary elections on the same day
Runoff Primary
A second primary election between the two candidates receiving the greatest number of votes in the first primary
Sample
A subset of the whole population selected to be questioned for the purposes of prediction or gauging opinion.
Federalism
A system in which power is divided between the national and state governments
Authoritarian System
A system of government that bases its rule on force rather than consent of the governed
Direct incitement test
A test articulated by the Supreme Court in Brandenburg vs Ohio that holds the advocacy of illegal action is protected by the 1st amendment unless imminent lawless action is intended and likely occur
Elite and Class Theory
A theory of government and politics contending that societies and divided along class lines and that an upper-class elite will rule
Pluralist Theory
A theory of government and politics emphasizing that groups are good for democracy and that politics is mainly a competition among groups, each one pressing for its own preferred policies.
Stratified Sampling
A variation of random sampling; census data are used to divide the county into four sampling regions. Sets of counties and standard metropolitan statistical areas are then randomly selected in proportion to the total national population.
Prospective Judgment
A voter's evaluation of a candidate based on what he or she pledges to do about an issue if elected
Retrospective Judgment
A voter's evaluation of the performance of the party in power
13th Amendment
Abolished slavery. First of three "Reconstruction Amendments" passed after Civil War (1865-70)
Twenty-Fifth Amendment
Adopted in 1967 to establish procedures for filling vacancies in the office of president and vice president as well as providing for procedures to deal with the disability of a president.
Redistricting
After seats are apportioned, congressional districts must be redrawn by the State legislature. To reflect population shifts to ensure that each member in Congress represents approximately the same number of residents. The process of redrawing congressional districts to reflect increases or decreases in seats allotted to the states. As well as population shifts within a state
marble cake federalism
Also known as cooperative federalism, it developed during the New Deal and is characterized by the federal government's becoming more intrusive in what was traditionally states' powers
Nineteenth Amendment
Amendment to the Constitution that guaranteed women the right to vote; enfranchised women (1920)
Expediency Persists
American parties developed and continue to endure because they have proven so useful to politicians and voters attempting to act collectively within the institutional framework established by the Constitution. For one thing, political parties rewards political entrepreneurs who can organize collective action across government institutions and electoral arenas. For another, it prompts voters to use party labels to simplify their decisions, giving politicians a reason to cooperate with party leaders to maintain the value of the party's "brand name."
Seventeenth Amendment
American voters directly elect US senators; changed rule that state legislatures choose US senators
Recall
An election in which voters can remove an incumbent from office by popular vote
Ballot Measure
An election option such as the initiative it referendum that enables voters to enact public policy
Initiative
An election that allows citizens to propose legislation and submit it to get state electorate for popular vote
Midterm Election
An election that takes place in the middle of a presidential election
Referendum
An election whereby the state legislature sum it's proposed legislation to the state's voters for approval
Federalist 10
An essay composed by James Madison which argues that liberty is safest in a large republic because many interests (factions) exist
Pardon
An executive grant providing restoration of all rights and privileges of citizenship to a specific individual charged or convicted of a crime.
Incorporation doctrine
An interpretation of the constitution that holds that the due process clause of the 14th amendment requires that state and local governments also guarantees those rights of the Bill of Rights
Raiding
An organized attempt by voters of one party to influence the primary results of the other party
Bicameral legislature
Any two-house legislature
Conference Committees
Are special joint committees created to reconcile differences in bills passed by the House and Senate. A conference committee is made up of members from the House and Senate committees that originally considered the bill.
Joint Committees
Are standing committees that include members from both houses of congress, are set up to conduct investigations or special studies. They focus public attention on major matters such as the economy, taxation, or scandals.
Standing Committees
Are the committees to which bills are referred for consideration. They are called this because this committee continued from one Congress to the next.
supremacy clause
Article VI of the Constitution, which makes the Constitution, national laws, and treaties supreme over state laws
Erosion of the new deal coalition
As the Democrats became the party of civil rights, white southerners began to depart. Traditional Democratic constituencies also were divided over new economic initiatives The Republicans, although less diverse than their rivals, could not avoid some serious divisions of their own.To attract economic conservatives, the Republicans declared war on taxation, regulation, welfare, and deficit spending; to win over social conservatives, they offered law and order, patriotism, and "traditional family values," defined to mean a ban on abortion, promotion of prayer in public schools, and opposition to same-sex marriage. But this coalition is not much more united than its Democratic counterpart. Many affluent economic conservatives are not attracted to the Christian Right's social agenda, and many social conservatives of modest means remain reluctant to expose themselves to the mercies of an unfettered free market.
Closed Rule
Bills no longer can be amended.
Symbolic speech
Symbols, signs, and other methods of expression generally also considered to be protected by the 1st amendment
party machines
Built on simple principles of exchange: party politicians provided favors and services to people throughout the year in return for their votes on Election Day. They found an eager market for their offerings among the growing population of poor immigrants whose basic needs—shelter, food, fuel, jobs, and help in adapting to a new and bewildering country—were far more pressing迫切的 than any concern for party programs or ideologies.穷困人民的需求是最重要的。 缺点：Party machines were regularly attacked as corrupt and inefficient, run by party hacks incapable of dealing with problems created by the growth of large industry and national markets.腐败且不效率，没有办法处理大工厂或国际市场的问题。
Suspect classification
Category or class, such as race, that triggers the highest standard of scrutiny from the Supreme Court
Who shall officiate when a president is tried for impeachment?
Chief Justice of Supreme Court
Due process clause
Clause contained in the 5th and 14th amendments. Over the years, it has been construed to guarantee to individuals a variety of rights ranging from economic liberty to criminal procedural rights to protection from arbitrary governmental action
elastic clause
Clause of the Constitution (Article I, Section 8, Clause 3) setting forth the implied powers of Congress.
necessary and proper clause
Clause of the Constitution (in Article I, Section 8) setting forth the implied powers of Congress. It states that Congress, in addition to its express powers, has the right to make all laws necessary and proper to carry out enumerated powers. AKA "elastic clause."
CBO
Congressional Budget Office; represents Congress creating its own bureaucracy to keep an eye on what the executive branch and bureaucracy were doing; conducts oversight studies
Consequences of progressive performs
Consequences for electoral politics: 1. First, turnout declined. Tighter registration laws, the Australian ballot, and literacy tests discouraged voting. With fewer jobs and favors to reward the party workers 2.The reforms also began to shift the focus of electoral politics from parties to candidates. With the advent of the Australian ballot and primary elections, these bonds weakened. Candidates could win nominations with or without the party's blessing by appealing directly to voters; they could campaign separately from the party's team because voters could now split their tickets more easily. 3. contributed to changes in the demographics and goals of party organizations. Traditional party organizations were built on material incentives attractive to working- class people; consequently, parties concentrated on winning elections to keep the material benefits flowing. As their resource base shrank, patronage-based parties were supplanted by party organizations made up of middle-class people inspired by nonmaterial incentives—devotion to a particular candidate, issue, or ideology—people for whom a party victory was often less important than the success of their preferred candidate or cause. The Progressive Era left the Republicans and Democrats organizationally weaker but more entrenched than ever in the political system.
Separation of Powers
Constitution divides the government into three branches: Legislative, Executive, Judicial. Each branch has its own purpose: to make the laws, execute the laws, and interpret the laws.
Prior restraint
Constitutional doctrine that prevents the government from prohibiting speech or publication before the fact; generally held to be in violation of the 1st amendment
Rule
Contains the date the bill will come up for debate, The time that will be allotted for discussion. Often specifies what kinds of amendments can be offered.
Tracking Polls
Continuous surveys that enable a campaign to chart its daily rise or fall in support.
Social Contract Theory
Contract between the state and the citizen, state protects citizen.
interstate compacts
Contracts between states that carry the force of law; unconstitutional UNLESS Congress consents; generally now used as a tool to address multistate policy concerns, such as driver's license recognition between states, or water rights;
New York Times vs. Sullivan
Court ruled that libelous statements made about public officials with actual malice is illegal
Brown v. Board of Education II
Court ruled that racially segregated systems must be dismantled "with all deliberate speed"
Executive Office of the President
Created in 1939 to help the president oversee the executive branch bureaucracy.
The Second Party System: Organizational Innovation
Democratic-republicans Federalists The Democratic-Republicans had eclipsed the Federalists nearly everywhere. Caucuses began as an extension of party competition in Congress. ----This method became a problem, however, when the Federalists dissolved, leaving almost everyone in Congress a nominal Democratic- Republican. With one party so dominant, whoever picked its nominee effectively picked the president. The caucus, then, could have its way as long as there was a general consensus among its members on the nominee. Without a consensus, the caucus lost influence and legitimacy. Adams party:Adams detested parties and had sought during his administration to build a coalition that incorporated all factions of the old Democratic-Republican and Federalist Parties. He did nothing himself to cultivate electoral allies. Yet his backers, in the process of nominating electors and candidates for other offices and working to get people to vote for them, created what amounted to an Adams party.
superdelegates
Democrats altered their rules several more times to give party regulars more influence in the selection process. Prominent elected officials—governors, senators, and representatives— are now automatically among the convention delegates The nomination process enables the parties to solve the coordination problem posed by competing presidential aspirants
5 most recently created Cabinet departments
Department of: Homeland Security (2003) Veterans Affairs (1989) Health and Human Services (1979) Education 1979 Department of Energy (1977) Department of Transportation (1966)
The Revival of the Parties: A Sixth Party System?
Despite the forces working against parties, and despite the public's doubts about the value of parties in general, the Democratic and Republican Parties continue to dominate electoral politics. In some ways, they are now stronger than ever. Parties have survived for the same reasons they came into being: elected officials, candidates, and voters still find them indispensable.
Federalist 51
Document discusses the ideas of checks and balances and separation of powers. Argues that separation of powers within the national government is the best way to prevent the concentration of power in the hands of one person or a single group.
Apportionment.
Each State is allotted its share of these 435 representatives based on its population. After each U.S. Census, the number of seats allotted to each state is adjusted by a constitutionally mandated process.
How is it determined how many electors each state has?
Each state has as many electors as it has senators and representatives in congress
Senate
Each state is represented two, regardless of the state's population. Must be at least thirty years and a citizen for nine years. Have six years term. Has the sole authority to approve major presidential appointments, including federal judges, ambassadors, and Cabinet and sub-Cabinet level positions. And must approve all presidential treaties by a two-thirds vote. But is authorized to conduct impeachment trials. A two-thirds yea vote being necessary before a federal official can be removed from office.
at- large election
Election in which candidates for office must compete throughout the jurisdiction as a whole.
General Election
Election in which voters decide which candidates will actually fill elective public offices
Primary Election
Election in which voters decide which of the candidates within a party will represent the party in a general election
PRIMARY ELECTIONS AND CAUCUSES
Election： 1. A primary election, the outcome of which would determine at least 90 percent of the state's delegation. 2. Or they could hold local party caucuses open to all Democrats, who would select delegates to a meeting at the county, congressional district, or state level. These delegates would in turn elect delegates to the national convention. The easiest option was the primary, and most state parties have adopted it. 3. the winner-take-all method of allocating delegates. Instead of awarding all of a state's delegates to the top vote getter, the new rules allocated delegates proportionately to candidates according to the share of votes they received in the primary or the caucus. To meet the "representativeness" standard, delegations had to include more minorities, women, and young adults. Because most elected officeholders were white males over thirty, these rules meant that many of them could no longer attend the convention. Previously the party's supreme plum, its presidential nomination, had been conferred by party leaders, who sought to pick a winner who would be obligated to them and therefore send presidential favors their way. Moreover, they wanted a candidate who would help the whole party ticket on Election Day. Now the nomination goes to the candidate who can best mobilize support in primary elections. If party leaders are to exercise any influence in this process, they must do it by delivering endorsements, money, and other electoral resources to their favorite before and during the primary season.
New Jersey Plan
Equal representation of each state in Congress regardless of population
17th Amendment
Established the direct election of senators (instead of being chosen by state legislatures).
Examples of Implied Powers
Establishing a national bank, creating the IRS, establishing a military draft
How often are Representatives to be elected?
Every two years
Libel
False written statements tending to call someone's reputation into dispute
Shays' Rebellion
Farmers rebellion that caused the founders to recognize the need for a stronger federal government.
Commerce Clause
Part of the Constitution that has most frequently been used to expand the power of the federal government
Bill of Rights
First 10 amendments to the Constitution
Thurgood Marshall
First head of the Legal Defense and Education Fund of the NAACP; later became the first African-American to serve on the United States Supreme Court
Republic
Form of democracy in which individuals are represented by appointed representatives.
Executive agreement
Formal government agreement entered into by the president that does not require the advice and consent of the U.S. Senate.
1st Amendment
Freedom of religion (establishment & free exercise clauses), speech, press, assembly, and petition.
county
Geographic district created witting a state with a government that has general responsibilities for land, welfare, environment, and , where appropriate, rural service policies.
16th Amendment
Gives Congress the power to levy the income tax.
Public Goods
Goods, such as clean air and water, public parks, and libraries that everyone must share
8th Amendment
Government cannot inflict cruel and unusual punishment or excessive bail. Meaning of "cruel" based on "evolving standards of decency that mark the progress of a maturing society." Categorical bans on death penalty: juveniles, retarded, non-murder crimes.
House Majority Leader
Is the head of the party controlling the most seats in the House; His or her counterpart in the party with the second highest number of seats is the minority leader. He or she helps the Speaker schedule proposed legislation for debate on the House floor.
Vice President
He or she is the presiding member of the Senate. He or she is not a member of the Senate, he votes only in the case of a tie.
Majority Leader
He or she is the true leader of the Senate elected by the majority party.
Which legislative body has the power of impeachment?
House of Representatives
In what federal body do all bills concerning taxes originate?
House of Representatives; "the power of the purse"
Seventeenth Amendment
In 1913, amendment ratified where Senators no longer chosen by State Legislators but by voters.
Constituencies
Include party leaders, colleagues, and lobbyists in Washington D.C., and constituents at home.
Print Media
Includes such forms as newspapers, periodicals, magazines, books, newsletters, advertising, memos, business forms, etc.
Caucus/Committee
Including nominating or electing party officers, reviewing committee assignments, discussing party policy, imposing party discipline, setting party themes, and coordinating media, including talk radio.
1st amendment
Part of the bill of rights that impose a number of restrictions on the federal government with respect to the civil liberties of the people, including freedom of religion, speech, press, assembly, and petition
direct mailer
a professional who supervises a political campaign's direct-mail fund-raising strategies
House Speaker
Is the only officer of the House of Representatives specifically mentioned in the Constitution. The office, the chamber's most powerful position is modeled after a similar one in the British parliament. Ths officer was the one who spoke to the king and conveyed the wishes of the House of Commons to the monarch. He/she presides over the House of Representatives, Oversees House business Is the official spokesperson for the House as well. Third in line of presidential succession. He or she is a liaison with the president and generally has great political influence within the chamber. He/she is also expected to smooth the passage of party-backed legislation through the House.
9th amendment
Part of the bill of rights that reads "the enumeration in the constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people."
Yellow Journalism
Journalism that exploits, distorts, or exaggerates the news to create sensations and attract readers
Substantive due process
Judicial interpretation of the 5th and 14th amendments due to process clause that protects citizens from arbitrary or unjust laws
Exclusionary rule
Judicially created rule that prohibits police from using illegally seized evidence at a trial
U.S. v. Nixon (1974)
Key Supreme Court ruling on power of the president, finding that there is no absolute constitutional executive privilege to allow a president to refuse to comply with a court order to produce information needed in a criminal trial.
8th amendment
Part of the bill of rights that states "excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted."
Jim Crow Laws
Laws enacted by southern states that discriminated against blacks by creating "Whites Only" schools, theaters, hotels, and other public accommodations
ex post facto laws
Laws that punish conduct that was not illegal when it was performed; unconstitutional; aka a retroactive law
The First Party System: The Origin of American Parties
Leaders with opposing views on national political issues sought to have their views prevail： 1. Federalists: a stable group of allies that Alexander Hamilton created. 2. Republicans( later known as Democratic-republicans): Members of Congress who opposed Hamilton's policies gradually coalesced under the leadership of Jefferson and Madison. Today, the Democratic Party is the oldest political party in the world. The Framers expected the electors to be prominent local men who would deliberate with others from their states before deciding how to cast their votes. Jefferson and his Democratic-Republican allies realized that these deliberations could be circumvented if they recruited and elected a majority of electors pledged to support Jefferson. By reaching out to local political leaders who were potential electors and to the growing mass of voters who chose the electors and state legislators, Jefferson successfully patched together an alliance of state and local factions, which led to a historic victory for his Democratic-Republicans and the ousting of the Federalists In the aftermath of the party's collapse, politicians and informed observers hoped that party competition—and therefore parties—would disappear. The idea that organized opposition would or should be a permanent part of American national politics was still unorthodox. Caucuses(nominated presidential candidates): members assembled with their allies to make party decisions
Civil Rights Act of 1964
Legislation passed by Congress to outlaw segregation in public facilities (Titile II) and racial discrimination in employment (Title VII), education, and voting -Prohibited discrimination in employment on grounds of race, color, religion, national origin, or sex -Created the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) to monitor and enforce the bans on employment discrimination
Hobbes
Life in a state of nature is solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short
22nd Amendment
Limits the president to two terms.
Functions of National Governments
Maintain an national defense Provide public services Preserve order Socialize the young Collect taxes
Elector
Member of the Electoral College chosen by methods determined in each state
block grant
Money given to states for general programs with very few strings attached. This type of federal funding allows states lots of freedom.
categorical grant
Money given to the states by the federal government for a specific purpose or program. The federal government puts many conditions on the grant regarding how the money should be spent.
TWO-PARTY COMPETITION
National leaders gradually divided into two major camps, initiating a pattern of two-party competition that has continued, with a few brief interruptions, to this day. People continually divided by region, religion, race, and ethnicity, not to mention social beliefs and economic interests, could fit into as few as two major political camps. But this pattern has continued for a compelling reason. Duverger's law：In any election where a single winner is chosen by plurality vote (whoever gets the most votes wins), there is a strong tendency for serious competitors to be reduced to two because people tend to vote strategically. If their favorite party's candidate has no chance to win, they turn to the less objectionable of the major-party candidates who does have a chance to win. This tendency is so strong that scholars have given it the status of a law, known as Duverger's law.
4th Amendment
No "unreasonable" searches and seizures without a warrant or probable cause that a search will produce evidence of a crime; Exclusionary Rule.
3rd amendment
No quartering of soldiers in times of peace; if it's wartime, quartering allowed with an Act of Congress
implied powers
Not expressed, but may be considered through the use of the Necessary and Proper (elastic) Clause.
House of Representatives
Number of representatives determined by the population. Must be at least twenty-five years of age to run. Must be a citizen for seven years. Must be a resident of the State they are representing and have two year terms. Has the power of impeachment. To Charge the President and civil officers of high crimes and misdemeanors.
9/13
Number of states that ratified the Constitution
Divided Government
One party controls the White House, and another controls one or both houses of Congress.
extradition clause
Part of Article IV of the Constitution that requires states to return criminals to states where they have been convicted or are to stand trial.
full faith and credit clause
Part of Article IV of the Constitution that requires that each state accept the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other state.
Double jeopardy
Part of the 5th amendment that protects individuals from being tried twice for the same offense
Article II
Part of the Constitution that deals with the Executive Branch
Article III
Part of the Constitution that deals with the Judicial Branch
Article I
Part of the Constitution that deals with the Legislative Branch
2. Australian ballot
Party ballots: were readily distinguishable, voters could not keep their choices to themselves or easily vote a split ticket—that is, vote for candidates of different parties for different offices— for this required manipulating several ballots. The system invited corruption and intimidation; party workers could monitor voters and reward or punish them accordingly. Australian ballot: was prepared by the government, listed candidates from all parties, and was marked in the privacy of a voting booth. Australian ballot：This change made it much more difficult for parties to exchange favors for votes because it left no (legal) way for the party to know if voters had kept their side of the bargain.
USE PARTY LABELS AND ENFORCE COLLECTIVE RESPONSIBILITY
Party labels: 1. offer a serviceable shorthand cue that keeps voting decisions cheap and simple—as long as the labels are informative.(more voters rely on party cues, the more valuable party labels are to candidates.) 2. Party labels allow voters to reward or punish elected officials as a group for their performance in office. Once they have adopted the party label, however, politicians have a personal stake in maintaining the value of their party's "brand name," which may impose conformity costs by requiring the subordination of their own views and ambitions to the party's welfare and reputation.
Electoral parties
Party organizers turned to mass communications—newspapers, pamphlets, public letters, and printed speeches—designed to excite voters with emotional appeals on issues. Anyone trying to mobilize citizens to vote also has to overcome the electorate's tendency to free ride, for a party's victory is a collective good that its supporters get to enjoy whether or not they vote. Since the beginning, then, much of the work of campaigns has been aimed at overcoming, by one means or another, the free-rider problem.
PROFESSIONAL POLITICIANS(who manage the parties)
Patronage: party managers had to attract the resource and reward to maintain the efforts of party workers, such as jobs, offices, government contracts, business licenses, and so forth.
Incumbency
People in office who seeks reelection. It is often very difficult for outsiders to win because they don't have the advantages enjoyed by incumbents. Advantages include name recognition, access to free media, an inside fund-raising and district drawn to favor the incumbent. An average of 96 percent of the incumbents who seek reelection win their primary and general elections.
The Fourth Party System: Republican Ascendancy
People's Party, or Populists: a party of agrarian protest against high railroad rates and the gold standard, and nominating William Jennings Bryan, a candidate with strong Populist sympathies. Republican campaign converted them into Republicans. The reaction to the agrarian takeover of the Democrats left the Republicans with a clear national majority for the next generation; the new alignment is commonly designated the fourth party system. The Republican Party ultimately lost its ascendancy to the Great Depression.
Plessy v. Ferguson
Plaintiff challenged a Louisiana statute requiring that railroads provide separate accommodations for blacks and whites. Court found that separate but equal accommodations did not violate the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. Deemed the Court's "Darkest Hour"
Affirmative action
Policies designed to give special attention or compensatory treatment to members of a previously disadvantaged group
Unconventional Political Participation
Political participation that attempts to influence the political process through unusual or extreme measures, such as protests, boycotts, and picketing
Conventional Political Participation
Political participation that attempts to influence the political process through well-accepted, often moderate forms of persuasion
Majority Party
Political party in each house with the most members.
The origin of political parties
Politician parties good idea, parties began to develop soon after the founding of the nation and, in one guise or another, have formed an integral part of the institutional machinery of American politics ever since. The chief reason for their longevity is that the institutions created by the Constitution make the payoffs for using parties— to candidates, voters, and elected officeholders—too attractive to forgo. American political parties represent the continuing triumph of pure political expedience the American parties have displayed a shared appetite for public office a good deal more consistently than they have for the pursuit of shared principles.
Exit Polls
Polls Conducted as voters leave selected polling places on Election Day.
Push Polls
Polls taken for the purpose of providing information on an opponent that would lead respondents to vote against that candidate.
concurrent powers
Powers given to both the national and state governments, such as the power to levy taxes.
Concurrent Powers
Powers held jointly by the national and state governments.
10th Amendment
Powers not expressly given to federal government by the Constitution are reserved to states or the people. Also known as "reserved powers amendment" or "states' rights amendment."
Example of checks and balances
President can veto legislation passed by Congress; Congress can override a presidential veto with a 2/3 vote
Due process rights
Procedural guarantees provided by the 4th, 5th,6th, and 8th amendment for those accused of crimes
pollster
a professional who takes public opinion surveys that guide political campaigns
Title VII (of Civil Rights Act)
Prohibits employers from discriminating against employees based on race, sex, age, national origin, and ethnicity
Equal Rights Amendment
Proposed amendment that would bar discrimination against women by federal or state governments
Title IX (of the Education Amendments of 1972)
Provision of the Educational Amendments of 1972 that bars educational institutions receiving federal funds if they discriminate based on gender
Regents of University California v. Bakke (1978)
Quotas may not be used in admissions policies. However, race may be taken into consideration and therefore, affirmative action programs are permissible generally.
De facto discrimination
Racial discrimination that results from practice (such as housing patterns or other social factors) rather than the law
De jure discrimination
Racial segregation that is a direct result of law or official policy
Voters use party label to punish elected officials
Rascals: members of the majority party. Parties developed into three- part systems： (1) the party in government, an alliance of current officeholders cooperating to shape public policy; (2) the party organization, dedicated to electing the party's candidates (3) the party in the electorate, composed of those voters who identify with the party and regularly vote for its nominees.
Redistricting
Redrawing congressional districts to reflect increases or decreases in seats allotted to the states as well as population shifts within a state
Pendleton Act
Reform measure that created the Civil Service Commission to administer a partial merit system. The act classified the federal service by grades, to which appointments were made based on the results of a competitive examination. It made it illegal for federal political appointees to be required to contribute to a particular political party
Progressive Era（important reforms were the civil service, the Australian ballot, and primary elections.）
Reformers, working almost entirely from within the two-party system, sought to destroy the party machines by depriving party leaders of the capacity to reward followers. Eventually, they succeeded. The most important changes were introduced during what is now called the Progressive Era—the decades just before and after the turn of the twentieth century, overlapping the end of the third party system and the beginning of the fourth. The most important reforms were the civil service, the Australian ballot, and primary elections.（为了摧毁party machines。生于第三政党结束和第四政党开始之间，最大的改革是：civil service, the Australian ballot, and primary elections.）
Examples of Reserved Powers
Regulate trade within the state, establish local government systems, conduct elections, establish public school systems
Virginia Plan
Representation of each state based on population
Electoral College
Representatives of each state who cast the final ballots that actually elect a president
Party Differences
Republicans: typically favor a smaller, cheaper federal government; they advocate lower taxes, less regulation of business, and lower spending on social welfare. They would be more generous only to the Defense Department. Letting free enterprise flourish. Republicans would ban abortion and gay marriage and allow official prayer in public schools. Republicans either deny human responsibility for global warming or consider it insufficiently menacing to justify government intervention. Democrats: more inclined to regulate business on behalf of consumers and the environment and are more supportive of government programs designed to improve domestic welfare; they would spend less on national defense. Democrats are more concerned with "fairness" and equality. Democrats would not ban abortion and gay marriage and allow official prayer in public schools.Democrats accept the scientific consensus that human activity is warming the planet, with potentially disastrous consequences, and advocate government action to cut greenhouse gas emissions. As the predictive accuracy of party labels has grown in recent decades, so has the usefulness—and therefore use —of party cues.
Civil Rights Act (1875)
Required equal access to public accommodations like theatres, restaurants, transportation; Court ruled Act only applies to government buildings
3rd Amendment
Restricts quartering of troops in private homes.
5th Amendment
Right of Accused Persons/ Indictment of Grand Jury (1) No Self-Incrimination (Miranda) (2) No Double Jeopardy (defendant cannot be tried again on the same, or similar charges) (3) No deprivation of life liberty or property without "due process of law" (fair treatment) (4) Eminent domain.
7th amendment
Right to a trial by jury in civil cases
2nd amendment
Right to bear arms
2nd Amendment
Right to bear arms; regulated militia is necessary to the security of a free country.
7th Amendment
Right to jury in civil trials.
Natural Rights
Rights inherent of human beings, not dependent on government. Life, liberty, and property. Central to John Locke's theory.
Equal Protection Clause
Section of the Fourteenth Amendment that guarantees that all citizens receive "equal protection of the laws"; only applies to actions of government (not private entities); protected classes are race, religion, national origin, ethnicity and gender
Miranda rights
Statements that must be made by the police informing a suspect of his or her constitutional rights protected by the 5th & 6th amendments, including the right to remain silent and the right to an attorney
15th Amendment
States cannot deny any person the right to vote because of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. Third of three "Reconstruction Amendments" passed after Civil War. First Voting Rights Amendment (with 19, 24 & 26).
26th Amendment
States cannot deny the right to vote based on age (18+).
19th Amendment
States cannot deny the right to vote based on gender.
3. primary elections
Strong party machines were still able to dominate primaries but as party organizations were weakened by other changes, primaries deprived them of a crucial political resource: the ability to control access to elective public office by controlling nominations
Article VI
Supremacy Clause, article of the Constitution states that the national government is the supreme law of the land
Examples of Concurrent Powers
Tax, write and enforce laws, create courts, barrow money,
Broadcast Media
Television and radio, as compared with print media.
enumerated powers
The 17 powers of US Congress that are specifically listed in the Constitution; aka delegated or express powers; listed in Article I, Section 8, ex., power to coin money and collect taxes.
Roe vs. wade
The Supreme Court found that a woman's rights to an abortion was protected by the right to privacy that could be implied from specific guarantees found in the Bill of Rights applied to the states through the 14th amendment
The Third Party System: Entrepreneurial Politics
The Republican Party, a coalition of antislavery forces, is unusual only in the success of its challenge to the two-party establishment. Third parties have arisen time and again, but most have failed to attract enough of a following to become more than obscure模糊的 refuges庇护 for the disaffected不满的. Kansas-Nebraska Act: overturned推翻 limits on the extension of slavery to the territories enacted 堪萨斯-内布拉斯加法案:取消限制奴隶制扩展到西部新开发地区的法案(The Republican Party was formed in opposition to it) Although founded on the slavery issue, the Republican Party was by no means a single-issue party. It also appealed to business and commercial interests by promising a protective tariff and a transcontinental railway and to farmers by promising free land for homesteading. On only its second try the party elected a president, Abraham Lincoln. His victory over divided opposition triggered the South's secession分离 from the Union and then the Civil War, from which the Republicans emerged as the party of victory and union. For the next generation the party sought to retain its ascendancy支配地位 by appealing variously to patriotism, national expansion, and laissez-faire自由主义 capitalism and by distributing pensions退休金 to Civil War veterans and protective tariffs to manufacturers. The end of Reconstruction restored local control to white southern politicians and left the newly revived Democratic Party, dominant in the South and with pockets of strength in the West, border states, and northern urban areas, a nearly equal competitor for national power.政党用退休金来留人，目的是为了保持它的支配地位。在南方掌权，并在西方北方也有权利，它拥有相当于国际力量的权利。
Dred Scott v. Sanford (1857)
The Supreme Court bluntly ruled that the Missouri Compromise, which prohibited slavery north of a set geographical boundary, was unconstitutional. Court added that slaves were not US citizens, and, as a consequence, slaves could not bring suits to the federal courts.
New York Times Co. v. Sullivan
The Supreme Court concluded that "actual malice" or "recklessness" must be proven to support a finding of libel against a public figure
Gibbons v. Ogden (1824)
The US Supreme Court (under Marshall) held that states could not interfere with the power of Congress to regulate interstate commerce; steamboat monopoly case in NY
Contiguous;
The boundaries of the district must be drawn with one unbroken line.
Electorate
The citizens eligible to vote
Political Ideology
The coherent set of values and beliefs about the purpose and scope of government held by groups and individuals.
get-out-the-vote (GOTV)
a push at the end of a political campaign to encourage supporters to go to the polls
gerrymandering
The drawing of congressional districts to produce a particular electoral outcome without regard to the shape of the district.
Suffrage movement
The drive for voting rights for women that took place in the United States from 1890 to 1920
Parties: The Constitution's Unwanted Offspring Party (parties were widely considered to be dangerous to good government and public order, especially in republics）
The establishment of the first party： People in authority saw themselves as agents acting on behalf of the whole community; any organized opposition was therefore misguided at best, treasonous at worst. When the leaders of the new government took the steps that led to the creation of the first political parties, they did not expect or want party competition to become a permanent feature of American politics. Rather, their aim was to have the common good—their version, naturally—prevail and their opponents consigned to oblivion. The first parties were created as temporary expedient. The party system has changed in important ways over the years as political entrepreneurs have adapted parties to new purposes and opportunities, but the basic features that reflect the constitutional system have reappeared in every period.
The Development and Evolution of the Party Systems
The first party system illustrates the logic that led to the creation of national parties. Institutional innovation in the second party system set parties on their basic organizational course. The full flowering and then decline of party machines under Progressive assault characterized the third and fourth party systems. Each of these systems also was defined by its distinctive pair of rival coalitions, but the coalitional nature of American parties is clearest in the creation and erosion of the party coalitions of the fifth party system. The party coalitions have changed enough to suggest that a sixth party system is now in place, although there is no consensus on its date of origin.
Cabinet
The formal body of presidential advisers who head the fifteen executive departments. Presidents often add others to this body of formal advisers.
Incumbency
The holding of an office
Government
The institutions that makes public policy for a society
Gerrymandering
The legislative process through which the majority part in each statehouse tries to assure that the maximum number of representatives from its political party can be elected to congress through the redrawing of legislative districts
New Federalism
The many attempts by Presidents Nixon and Reagan to return power to the states through "block grants" and reduction of the size of the national government. A reaction to the marble cake federalism of FDR.
Office of Management and Budget (OMB)
The office that prepares the president's annual budget proposal, reviews the budget and programs of the executive departments, supplies economic forecasts and conduct detailed analyses of proposed bills and agency rules.
Pro tempore or Pro tem.
The official chair of the Senate is the president. Who is selected by the majority party and presides over the senate in the absence of the Vice President. Today is primarily honorific office that generally goes to the most senior senator of the majority party. Once elected, the he stays in that office until there is change in the majority party in the Senate.
Nomination Campaign
The part of the candidate's campaign is geared towards winning the primary election
Personal Campaign
The part of the candidate's campaign that tries to effectively present his or her public image
Civil liberties
The personal guarantees and freedoms that the federal government cannot abridge by law, constitution, or judicial interpretation
Minority Party
The political party in each house with the second most members.
Tenth Amendment
The powers not delegated to the US Congress by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states respectively, or to the people.
Agenda Setting
The process of forming the list of matters that policymakers intend to address
Political Socialization
The process through which individuals acquire their political beliefs and values.
Turnout
The proportion of the voting- age public that votes
Reapportionment
The reallocation of the number of seats in the House of Representatives after each decennial census
preemption
The right of a federal law or a regulation to preclude enforcement of a state or local law or regulation.
sovereign immunity
The right of a state to be free from lawsuit unless it gives permission to the suit. 11th Amendment
Right to privacy
The right to be let alone; a judicially created doctrine encompassing and individual's decision to use birth control or secure an abortion; 9th Amendment
6th Amendment
The right to counsel in criminal trials (1) Speedy and public trial (2) Accused must be told charges (3) right to counsel (free lawyer if poor) (4) right to jury in criminal cases.
Front-Loading
The tendency of states to choose an early date in the primary calendar
MEDIA AND MONEY.
The weakening of party influence on voters was hastened along by technological changes and the growing availability of campaign resources —money, skill, activists—from sources other than political parties. The most important technological innovation was the advent of television as a campaign medium, but newer technologies, such as computerized direct mail, mass-produced campaign videos, and later the Internet, contributed as well. These media enabled candidates with sufficient resources to reach voters directly without the help of parties. The technology of modern campaigns is expensive, driving up the demand for campaign funds. The supply rose to meet the demand because a growing economy provided the more money for people to invest in politics, and the expanding role of the government in their lives and businesses gave them more reasons to do so.
House Committee of Rules
There is no counterpart that exists in Senate plays a key role in the House law-making process. The importance of the Committee on Rules is seen with the majority party members, are appointed directly by the Speaker. This Committee reviews most bills after they come from a committee and before they go to full chamber for consideration. They perform a traffic cop function.
Whip
They are elected by the party members in caucuses, assist the Speaker and the majority and minority leaders in their leadership efforts. The position originated in the British House of Commons where it was named after the "whipper." It is also the rider who keeps hounds together in a fox hunt. were first designated in 1899. Party members in Congress into line on partisan issues. They try to maintain close contact with all members on important votes. Prepare summaries of content, and implications of bills. Take vote counts during debates and votes, In general get members to toe the party line. Also serve as communication links. Distributing word of the party line from leaders to rank-and-file members and alerting leaders to concerns in the ranks.
Committee chairs
They enjoy tremendous power and prestige. They are authorized to select all subcommittee chairs, call meetings and recommend majority members to sit on conference committees. They may even opt to kill a bill by refusing to schedule hearings on it.
Committees
This is where the bulk of the work happens. It is critical to the productivity and effectiveness of Congress.
Fundamental freedoms
Those rights defined by the Court to be essential to order, liberty, and justice and therefore entitled to the highest standard of review, strict scrutiny
TO BUILD STABLE LEGISLATIVE AND ELECTORAL ALLIANCES.
To control policy consistently, then, legislative leaders found it advantageous to cultivate a stable group of supporters, forming durable alliances that sharply reduced the transaction costs of negotiating a winning coalition on each new proposal.
Hyperpluralism
Too many groups are so strong that government is weakened. It convulses government!
McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)
US Supreme Court case which ruled that Congress has implied powers under the necessary and proper clause to create a national bank; also established the principle that federal government is *supreme over the states* and therefore, state can't tax the national bank; Marshall Court
Brown v. Board of Education I
US Supreme Court decision holding that school segregation is inherently unconstitutional because it violates the Fourteenth Amendment's guarantee of equal protection; marked the end of legal segregation in the United States
1. Civil service
Under the spoils system, the winning party filled appointive government jobs with its faithful workers; the civil service system turned government jobs into professional careers. Appointment and advancement depended on merit, not political pull, and civil servants could not be fired except "for cause"—failing to do their jobs or committing crimes. As more government jobs were brought under civil service, the rewards for party work shrank, reducing the number of party workers. 把政府工作转变成专业职业。职员的进步取决于他自己的优势，而不是政治牵引，任何civil servants都不能被开除，除非他们没有做好他们的工作或者犯了罪。在civil service下，更多政府职业被开发，party work的数量和奖励变少
9th Amendment
Unenumerated Rights Amendment. Citizens have unenumerated rights in addition to those stated in the Constitution. Not been developed by Supreme Court. Not everything can be written down.
Conference Committee
When different versions of a bill are passed in the House and Senate, with members of both houses meets to iron out the differences.
Gridlock
When nothing gets done in government
Straw Polls
Unscientific surveys used to gauge public opinion on a variety of issues and policies.
Slander
Untrue spoken statements that defame the character of a person
Basic Features of the Party System
Value to: 1. elected leaders competing for political goods, 2. to candidates competing for office and groups competing for political power, 3. to voters in search of cognitive shortcuts to voting decisions guaranteed that parties' practical virtues would be rediscovered by every political generation.
Who is the president of the senate?
Vie President
Ticket-Splitting
Voting for candidates of different parties for various offices in the same election
3/4
What portion of states must ratify an amendment for it to become part of the Constitution?
Public Opinion
What the public thinks about a particular issue or set of issues at any point in time.
Incentives for Party Building
When action requires winning majorities on a continuing basis in multiple settings, organization is absolutely essential. The Constitution's provisions for enacting laws and electing leaders therefore put a huge premium on building majority alliances across institutions and electoral units. Parties grew out of the efforts of political entrepreneurs to build such alliances and to coordinate the collective activity necessary to gain control of and use the machinery of government.
Locke
Which enlightenment idealist believed that all humans have unalienable, natural rights?
Fighting words
Words that, "by their utterance inflict or tend to incite an immediate breach of peace." Fighting words are not protected by 1st amendment
balanced budget
a budget in which the legislature balances expenditure with expects revenues with no deficits.
cooperative federalism
a concept of federalism in which national, state, and local governments interact cooperatively and collectively to solve common problems, rather than making policies separately but more or less equally Began with FDR.
Press Conference
a conference at which press and tv reporters ask questions of a politician or other celebrity
natural law
a doctrine that society should be governed by certain ethical principles that are part of nature and, as such, can be understood by reason
brief
a document containing the legal written arguments in a case filed with a court by a party prior to a hearing or trial
monarchy
a form of government in which power is vested in hereditary kings and queens who govern in the interests of all
totalitarianism
a form of government in which power resides in a leader who rules according to self-interest and without regard for individual rights and liberties
oligarchy
a form of government in which the right to participate is conditioned on the possession of wealth, social status, military position, or achievement
compact
a formal, legal argument as that between a state and a tribe.
republic
a government rooted in the consent of the governed; a representative or indirect democracy
unitary system
a government that gives all key powers to the national or central government
municipality
a government with general responsibilities, such as a city, town, or village, which is created in response to the emergence of relatively densely populated area.
personal liberty
a key characteristic of US democracy. Initially meaning freedom from governmental interference, today it includes demands for freedom to engage in a variety of practices without governmental interference or discrimination
special district.
a local government that is responsible for a particular function, such as, schools, water, sewerage, or parks.
Missouri plan
a method of selecting judges in which a governor must appoint someone from a list provided by an independent panel. Judges are then kept in office if they get a majority of yes votes in general elections.
Wire Service
a news agency or organization that gathers news and transmits it to individual subscribing newspapers
confederation
a political system in which a weak central government has limited authority, and the states have ultimate power.
precedent
a prior judicial decision that serves as a rule for settling subsequent cases of a similar nature
manager
a professional executive hired by a city council or country board to manage the daily operations and to recommend policy changes.
finance chair
a professional who coordinates the fund-raising efforts for the campaign
Executive order
a rule or regulation issued by the president that has the effect of law. All executive orders must be published in the Federal Register.
bureaucracy
a set of complex hierarchical departments, agencies, commissions, and their staffs that exist to help a chief executive officer carry out his or her duties. May be private organizations of governmental units
Blog
a shared on-line journal where people can post diary entries about their personal experiences and hobbies
Three-Fifths Compromise
a slave is equal to 3/5 a person in population count
direct democracy
a system of government in which members of the polity meet to discuss all policy decisions and then agree to abide by majority rule
federal system
a system of government in which power is divided between a central authority and a number of individual states.
democracy
a system of government that gives power to the people, whether directly or through elected representatives
progressive tax
a tax level increases with the wealth or ability of an individual or business to pay.
referendum
an election whereby the state legislature submits proposed legislation or state constitutional amendments to the voters for approval.
initiative
an election that allows citizens to propose legislation or state constitutional amendments by submitting them to the electorate for popular vote.
contrast ad
ad that compares the records and proposals of the candidates, with a bias toward the sponsor
Twenty-Second Amendment
adopted in 1951, prevents a president from serving more than tow terms, or more than ten years if he come to office via the death or impeachment of his predecessor.
negative ad
advertising on behalf of a candidate that attacks the opponent's platform or character
positive ad
advertising on behalf of a candidate that stresses the candidate's qualifications, family, and issue positions, without reference to the opponent
inoculation ad
advertising that attempts to counteract an anticipated attack from the opposition before the attack is launched
3/5ths Compromise
agreement providing that enslaved persons would count as three-fifths of other persons in determining representation in Congress
American dream
an American ideal of a happy, successful life, which often includes wealth, a house, a better life for one's children, and for some, the ability to grow up to be president
Equal Time Rule
an FCC rule that if a broadcaster sells time to one candidate, it must sell equal time to other candidates.
social contract
an agreement between the people and their government signifying their consent to be governed
Press Release
an announcement distributed to members of the press in order to supplement or replace an oral presentation
strict constructionist
an approach to constitutional interpretation that emphasizes the Framers' original intentions
affiliates
an associated person or organization; a member; to join or unite with a larger body
recall
an election in which voters can remove an incumbent from office prior to the next scheduled election.
Clear and present danger test
an interpretation of the First Amendment that holds that the government cannot interfere with speech unless the speech presents a clear and present danger that it will lead to evil or illegal acts; test NO LONGER used. now direct incitement test
Political machine
an organization designed to solicit votes from certain neighborhoods or communities for a particular political party in return for services and jobs if that party wins.
Article IV
article of the Constitution that defines the states' relationships with one another
implied powers
assumed powers; not directly stated in the Constitution
rule of four
at least four justices of the SC must vote to consider a case before it can be heard
jurisdiction
authority vested in a particular court to hear and decide the issues in any particular case
criminal law
codes of behavior related to the protection of property and individual safety
Great Compromise
bicameral legislature with lower house determined by state population and upper house with equal representation among all the states
The Fifth Party System: The New Deal Coalition
brought together Democrats of every conceivable background. It united white southern segregationists with northern African Americans, progressive intellectuals with machine politicians, union members and their families with the poorest farmers, Roman Catholics with Southern Baptists. These diverse groups agreed on only one thing—electing Democrats—while having very different reasons for wanting to do so. Wagner Act of 1935(known as organized labor's "bill of rights"): cemented union support The opposing Republican coalition was a smaller, inverted image of the Democratic coalition: business and professional people, upper-income white Protestants, residents of smaller towns and cities in the Northeast and Midwest, and ideological conservatives. It was united by what it opposed: Roosevelt's New Deal programs and the greatly enlarged federal bureaucracy they engendered, which Republicans excoriated as unconstitutional, unwise, and un- American.
Examples of enumerated powers
coin money, regulate commerce with foreign nations, establish post offices, punish counter fitters, declare war
Marbury v. Madison
case in which the Supreme Court first asserted the power of judicial review by finding that the congressional statute extending the Court's original jurisdiction was unconstitutional
Governor
chief elected executive in state government.
mayor
chief elected executive of a city.
civil law
codes of behavior related to business and contractual relationships between groups and individuals
checks and balances
each branch can restrict the power of the others
separation of powers
each branch has a specific government function
Checks and Balances
each branch of government can limit the power of the other branches
Full Faith and Credit Clause
each state has to recognize the documents of other states
necessary and proper clause
elastic clause, has permitted Congress to exercise powers not specifically given to it (enumerated) by the Constitution.
district-based election
election in which candidates run for an office that represents only the voters of a specific district within the jurisdiction.
Judiciary Act of 1789
established the basic 3-tiered structure of the federal court system
Media Events
events purposely staged for the media that nonetheless look spontaneous. In keeping with politics as theater, media events can be staged by individuals, groups, and government officials, especially presidents.
Americans with Disabilities Act (1990)
forbids employers and owners of public accommodations from discriminating against people with disabilities (must make facilities wheelchair accessible and provide other reasonable accommodations to people with disabilities)
town meeting
form of local government in which all eligible voters are invited to attend a meeting and vote on policy and management issues.
commission
form of local government in which several officials are elected to top positions that have both legislative and executive responsibilities.
Mass Media
forms of communication, such as newspapers and radio, that reach millions of people
candidate debate
forum in which political candidates face each other to discuss their platforms, records, and character
GAO
general accountability office; created in 1921 to help Congress's oversight of the bureaucracy's financial affairs; tracks how money is spent in the bureaucracy and monitors how policies are implemented
Content Regulation
government attempts to regulate the substance of the mass media.
limited government
government only has the power that is given to it by the Constitution
Public corporation
government organization established to provide a particular service or run a particular facility that is independent of other city or state agencies and is to be operated like a business. ex) port authority or a mass transit system.
James Madison
he addressed fear of factions
Civil Rights Cases (1883)
held Civil Rights Act of 1875 unconstitutional - Act can only prohibit discrimination by government, not discrimination by privately owned entities (ex., theaters); 10th Amendment gives states power over this area
Strict scrutiny
highest standard of review used by the Supreme Court to determine the constitutional validity of a challenged practice; government must show a compelling interest to classify based on race and must show that the law is narrowly tailored to achieve that interest
Habeas Corpus
holding a person in jail without a trial
judicial implementation
how and whether judicial decisions are translated into actual public policies affecting more than the immediate parties to a lawsuit
stare decisis
in court rulings, a reliance on past decisions or precedents to formulate decisions in new cases
regressive tax
increases as the wealth or ability of an individual or business to pay decreases.
On the record
information provided to a journalist that can be released and attributed by name to the source
Deep Background
information provided to a journalist that will not be attributed to any source
campaign consultant
private sector professionals and firms who sell a candidate the technology, services, and strategies needed to get him/her elected
patronage
jobs, grants, or other special favors that are given as rewards to friends and political allies for their support
Citizen Journalism
journalism based on images, audio and reports sent in to news groups by ordinary people who witnessed events
reservation land
land designed in a treaty that is under the authority of an american indian nation and is exempt form most state laws and taxes.
Federalists
led by James Madison and Alexander Hamilton, supported a stronger national government
hard money
legally specified and limited contributions that are clearly regulated by the federal election campaign act and by the federal election commission
Federal Employees Political Activities Act 1993
liberalization of the Hatch Act; Federal employees are now allowed to run for office in nonpartisan elections and to contribute money to campaigns in partisan elections
Pluralist theory
lots of groups have positive effects on government
Narrowcasting
media programming on cable TV or the Internet that is focused on one topic and aimed at a particular audience. Examples include MTV, ESPN, and C-SPAN.
citizen
member of the political community to whom certain rights and obligations are attached
Modern Party Organizations
modern Democratic and Republican Parties might be depicted as pyramidal organizations. Each party's sovereign body is its national nominating convention, which officially elects the national party chair and ratifies the states' selections to the party's national committee. The national committee, with at least two members from each state, is charged with conducting the party's affairs between national conventions and hiring and directing a large professional staff. Below the national committees are the state committees and chairs, which oversee the committees representing congressional and state legislative districts and counties.Further subdivisions would include diverse township, city, ward, and precinct committees, also with formal leaders, some chosen by caucuses, some in primary elections.
segregated funds
money that come in from a certain tax or fee and then is restricted to a specific use, such as a gasoline tax that is used for road maintenance.
control
national parties are controlled by elected politicians, not party officials. national committee's primary task is to win or retain the presidency House and Senate candidates have their own separate national campaign organizations—all under the control of their respective party's congressional leaders
News Media
newspapers and magazines collectively
4th amendment
no unreasonable searches and seizures; probable cause and warrant needed to search
Off the record
not for quotation
conservative
one who believes that a government is best that governs least and that big government can only infringe on individual, personal, and economic rights
social conservative
one who believes that traditional moral teachings should be supported and furthered by the government
libertarian
one who favors a free market economy and no governmental interference in personal liberties
liberal
one who favors governmental involvement in the economy and in the provision of social services and who takes an activist role in protecting the rights of women, the elderly, minorities, and the environment
NAACP Legal Defense Fund
organization created to devise a strategy to bring about equal educational opportunities for all African-American children. Thurgood Marshall was the first head.
trust land
owned by american indian nation and designated by the federal Bureau of Indian Affairs as exempt from most state laws and taxes.
extradition
part of Article IV of the Constitution that requires states to return criminals to states where they have been convicted or are to stand trial
alliances(by necessary, coalitions)
participants have to agree to cooperate on action even though they have different, even conflicting reasons for doing so. Coalitions vying for majority status need to recruit like-minded candidates and work to elect them; successful legislative alliances in Washington depend on successful electoral alliances in the states and districts.In either case, the problem is to sustain cooperation among numerous politicians, often with divergent purposes and interests, across great distances. To the degree that the effort succeeds, the result is a national party organization.
Sixteenth Amendment
permits Congress to levy an income tax.
judicial restraint
philosophy of judicial decision making that argues courts should allow the decisions of other branches of gov't to stand, even they offend a judge's own sense of principles
judicial activism
philosophy of judicial decision making that argues judges should use their power broadly to further justice, especially in the areas of equality and personal liberty
domestic dependent nation
places american indian tribe in the U.S outside the authority of state governments but reliant on the federal government for the interpretation and application of treaty provisions.
Virginia Plan
plan for bicameral legislature with number of representatives based on the population of the states, one executive, and the legislature would appoint judges
New Jersey Plan
plan for unicameral legislature with representatives chosen by the states and the number of representatives set equal among all the states, multiple executives, and the executives would appoint judges
paid media
political advertisements purchased for a candidate's campaign
Talking Heads
politicians who use sound bites or other means to present a superficial look at a policy position rather than an in-depth approach to explaining their views
6 basic principles of the Constitution
popular sovereignty, limited government, separation of powers, checks and balances, federalism, and judicial review
Impeachment
power delegated to House of Representatives to charge president or VP with "Treason, Bribery or other High Crimes and Misdemeanors." First step in removing the official from office.
judicial review
power of the courts to review acts of other branches of gov't and the states
enumerated powers
powers directly stated in the Constitution
inherent powers
powers only given to the national government because they are too big for the states
reserved powers
powers reserved to the states in the 10th Amendment
Inherent powers
powers that belong to the national government simply because it is a sovereign body.
popular sovereignty
primary precaution against a tyrannical government and dictatorship
Electronic Media
radio, television, and the internet
5th amendment
requires grand jury, protection against self-incrimination, and prevents the national government from denying a persons life, liberty, or property without the due process of law. It also prevents the national government from taking property without fair compensation (eminent domain)
Supremacy Clause
says the Constitution is supreme law of the land
Sound Bites
short snippets of information aimed at dramatizing a story rather than explaining its substantive meaning
How long is the term for a senator?
six years
civil society
society created when citizens are allowed to organize and express their views publicly as they engage in an open debate about public policy
Who decides the times, places, and manner for holding elections in congress?
state legislatures
reserved (or police) powers
states' power to make laws about public health, safety, property and welfare of its citizens; 10th Amendment
New Media
technologies such as the Internet that blur the line between media sources and create new opportunities for the dissemination of news and other information
spot ad
television advertising on behalf of a candidate that is broadcast in 60-, 30-, or 10-second duration
press secretary
the individual charged with interacting and communicating with journalists on a daily basis
commute
the action of a governor to cancel all or part of the sentence of someone convicted of a crime , while keeping the conviction on the record.
line-item veto
the authority of a chief executive to delete part of a bill passed by the legislature that involves taxing or spending. Ruled unconstitutional by the U.S Supreme Court.
Line-item veto
the authority of a chief executive to delete part of a bill passed by the legislature that involves taxing or spending. Ruled unconstitutional by the U.S. Supreme Court.
Package or general veto
the authority of a chief executive to reject an entire bill that has been passed by the legislature.
parole
the authority of a governor to release a prisoner before his or her full sentence has been completed and to specify conditions that must be met as part of the release.
social contract theory
the belief that people are free and equal by natural right, and that this in turn requires that all people give their consent to be governed; espoused by John Locke and influential in the writing of the Declaration of Independence
majority rule
the central premise of direct democracy in which only policies that collectively garner the support of a majority of voters will be made into law
political ideology
the coherent set of values and beliefs about the purpose and scope of government held by groups and individuals
state constitution
the document that describes the basics of polities, procedures, and institutions of the government of a specific state, much as the U.S Constitution does for the federal government.
Muckraking
the exposure of scandal (especially about public figures)
spoils system
the firing of public-office holders of a defeated political party and their replacement with loyalists of the newly elected party
government
the formal vehicle through which policies are made and affairs of state are conducted
solicitor general
the fourth ranking member of the Department of Justice; responsible for handling all appeals on behalf of US gov't to the SC
Representative democracy
the people elect officials to make decisions on their behalf
General Election Campaign
the portion of a political campaign that focuses on winning a general election
appellate jurisdiction
the power vested in particular courts to review and/or revise the decision of a lower court
War Powers Act (1973)
the president is limited in the deployment of troops overseas to a sixty day period in peacetime (which can be extended for an extra thirty days to permit withdrawal) unless Congress explicitly gives its approval for a longer period.
political equality
the principle that all citizens are equal in the political process, as implied by the phrase "one person, one vote"
One person, one vote
the principle that each legislative district within a state should have the same number of eligible voters so that representation is equitably based on population.
popular consent
the principle that governments must draw their powers from the consent of the governed
implementation
the process by which a law or policy is put into operation by the bureaucracy
politics
the study of who gets what, when, and how - or how policy decisions are made
merit system
the system by which federal civil service jobs are classified into grades or levels, to which appointments are made on the basis of performance on competitive examinations
Class elite theory
the top 1% (the wealthiest) of people make all of the government's decisions
Print Press
the traditional form of mass media, comprising newspapers, magazines, and journals
What does article 3 say about the term of office for federal judges?
they'll hold it through good behavior and its a life term
extradite
to send someone against his or her will to another state to face criminal charges.
Factions
unequal distribution of wealth is the greatest source of this
media campaign
where the candidate reaches out to the voters in person or via the media, to create a positive impression and gain votes
