Chapter 1 Thinking Critically With Psychological Science
dependent variable
The experimental factor that is being measured; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable
random assignment
assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups
placebo
effect experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent
testing efect
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information
informed consent
giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate
Humanistic Psychology
historically significant perspective that emphasized human growth potential.
independent variable
in an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied
The __________________ refers to the most frequent score in a set.
mode
basic research
pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base
Replication
repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances
applied research
scientific study that aims to solve practical problems
Levels of analysis
the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon.
Culture
the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.
Cognitive neuroscience
the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)
Nature-nurture issue
the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture.
debriefing
the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants
Natural selection
the principle that those chance inherited traits that better enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.
Psychology
the science of behavior and mental processes.
Positive psychology
the scientific study of human functioning, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive.
Evolutionary Psychology
the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection.
Behavior Genetics
the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior.
hindsight bias
the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.
Behaviorism
the view that psychology 1) should be an objective science that 2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most psychologists today agree with 1) but not with 2).
Correlation
A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.
experiment
A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process
Hypothesis
A testable prediction, often implied by a theory
A __________________ psychologist might study ways that we can change schools and neighborhoods to reduce bullying.
Community
Functionalism
Early school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function-how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish.
Structuralism
Early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind.
Which psychological perspective uses Darwin's principles of natural selection to help understand human behavior and the mind?
Evolutionary psychology
The purpose of laboratory experiments is to re-create the exact behaviors that people demonstrate in everyday life.
False
There are safeguards in place to protect the well-being of ________________ in research.
Humans and animals
experimental group
In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.
control group
In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.
Psychologists must be very careful about how they phrase their survey questions because subtle differences in wording can affect how people answer these questions.
True
The first female president of the American Psychological Association (APA) was ________________.
Mary Whiton Calkins
The careful statement or description of the exact procedures that a psychologist uses in a research study is called a(n):
Operational definition
A person who feels more energetic and alert after drinking a decaffeinated coffee (a coffee that does not contain the stimulant caffeine) is experiencing a(n):
Placebo effect
Although you are usually a "B" student, you have one amazing (though unusual) week where you received all perfect scores on your papers and exams. The next week, your scores return back to all "Bs." This return to your average can be explained by:
Regression toward the mean.
Critical thinking
Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biased, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.
psychiatry
a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy
counseling psychology
a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being
community psychology
a branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups
clinical psychology
a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders
operational definition
a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study
survey
a descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group
case study
a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
natural selection
a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
confounding variable
a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment
random sample
a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
correlation coefficient
a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)
SQ3R
a study method incorporating five steps: Survey, Question, Read, Retrieve, Review
Population
all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn
intuition
an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning
double-blind procedure
an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.
theory
an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events
biopsychosocial approach
an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social cultural levels of analysis.
