Chapter 11: Stress, Health, and Coping

Identify the psychological moderators of stress.

Psychological factors can influence, or moderate, the effects of stress. For example, self-efficacy expectations affect our ability to withstand stress (high self-efficacy expectations are accompanied by relatively lower levels of adrenaline and noradrenaline in the bloodstream). People who are self-confident are less prone to be disturbed by adverse events. Humor, laughter, and feelings of happiness may have beneficial effects on the immune system. On the other hand, there is a significant relationship between negative life events and stress scores, although the ability to predict a stressor apparently moderates its impact. Control and even the illusion of control can also moderate impact. Social support also seems to act as a buffer against the effects of stress. Sources of social support include: emotional concern, instrumental aid, information, appraisal, and socializing.

Describe how stress suppresses the immune system.

Stress suppresses the immune system. Feelings of control and social support can moderate these effects. The immune system has several functions that combat disease. One function is production of white blood cells (leukocytes). These cells recognize and eradicate foreign agents and unhealthy cells. Foreign substances are called antigens. The body generates specialized proteins or antibodies to fight antigens. Inflammation is another function of the immune system. This is increased blood supply, which floods the region with white blood cells. One of the reasons stress exhausts us is that it stimulates the production of steroids. Steroids suppress the functioning of the immune system. Persistent secretion of steroids decreases inflammation and interferes with the formation of antibodies. We become more vulnerable to various illnesses.

Psychological hardiness

a cluster of traits that buffer stress and are characterized by commitment, challenge, and control

Biopsychosocial

having to do with the interactions of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors

Inflammation

increased blood flow to an injured area of the body, resulting in redness, warmth, and an increased supply of white blood cells

Self-efficacy expectations

our beliefs that we can bring about desired changes through our own efforts

Pathogen

a microscopic organism (e.g., bacterium or virus) that can cause disease

Antigen

a substance that stimulates the body to mount an immune system response to it (short for antibody generator)

Externals

people who perceive the ability to attain reinforcements as being largely outside themselves

Internals

people who perceive the ability to attain reinforcements as being largely within themselves

Eustress (YOU-stress)

stress that is healthful

Antibodies

substances formed by white blood cells that recognize and destroy antigens

Stress

the demand that is made on an organism to adapt

Health psychology

the field of psychology that studies the relationships between psychological factors (e.g., attitudes, beliefs, situational influences, and behavior patterns) and the prevention and treatment of physical illness

Alarm reaction

the first stage of the GAS, which is triggered by the impact of a stressor and characterized by sympathetic activity

Locus of control

the place (locus) to which an individual attributes control over the receiving of reinforcers—either inside or outside the self

Resistance stage

the second stage of the GAS, characterized by prolonged sympathetic activity in an effort to restore lost energy and repair damage. Also called the adaptation stage

Immune system

the system of the body that recognizes and destroys foreign agents (antigens) that invade the body

Exhaustion stage

the third stage of the GAS, characterized by weakened resistance and possible deterioration

Catastrophize

to interpret negative events as being disastrous; to "blow out of proportion"

Leukocytes

white blood cells (derived from the Greek words leukos, meaning "white," and kytos, literally meaning "a hollow" but used to refer to cells)

Define conflict and describe the four types of conflict.

Conflict is the feeling of being pulled in two or more directions by opposing motives and can be frustrating and stressful. There are four types of conflict: Approach-approach conflict (A) is the least stressful type. Each of two goals is desirable and both are within reach. Avoidance-avoidance conflict (B) is more stressful. A person is motivated (M) to avoid each of two negative goals. Avoiding one of them requires approaching the other. In approach-avoidance conflict, (C), the same goal produces both approach and avoidance motives. Multiple approach-avoidance conflict (D) occurs when each of several alternative courses of action has pluses and minuses. Decision-making can be stressful—especially when there is no clear correct choice.

Define stress and identify various sources of stress.

Psychological factors such as stress, behavior patterns, and attitudes can lead to or aggravate illness. People can cope with stress, and in fact there is such a thing as healthful stress (eustress). Small stress-ors, such as daily hassles, can threaten or harm our well-being and lead to nervousness, worrying, inability to get started, feelings of sadness, and feelings of loneliness. Hassles can predict health problems such as heart disease, cancer, and athletic injuries.

General adaptation syndrome (GAS)

Selye's term for a hypothesized three-stage response to stress

Fight-or-flight reaction

an innate adaptive response to the perception of danger

Type A behavior

behavior characterized by a sense of time urgency, competitiveness, and hostility

Conflict

being torn in different directions by opposing motives; feelings produced by being in conflict

Describe the impact of stress on the body.

The General Adaptation Syndrome, proposed by Selye, is a cluster of bodily changes that occur in three stages—alarm, resistance, and exhaustion. The alarm reaction is triggered by perception of a stressor. The reaction mobilizes or arouses the body. This mobilization is the basis for the instinctive fight-or-flight reaction. The alarm reaction involves bodily changes that are initiated by the brain and regulated by the endocrine system and the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system (ANS). If the stressor isn't removed, we enter the adaptation or resistance stage, in which the body attempts to restore lost energy and repair bodily damage. If the stressor isn't dealt with, we may enter the exhaustion stage—the body is depleted of the resources required for combating stress.

Explain the relationships between psychology and health.

The biopsychosocial approach to health recognizes that there are complex factors (biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors) that contribute to health and illness and that there is no single, simple answer. Biological factors such as pathogens, inoculations, injuries, age, gender, and a family history of disease may be the most obvious cause of disease, although genetics certainly plays a role. Coronary heart disease (CHD) is the leading cause of death in the United States. Risks for CHD include family history, physiological conditions, patterns of consumption, Type A behavior, hostility and holding in feelings of anger, job strain, chronic fatigue and chronic emotional strain, sudden stressors, and a physically inactive lifestyle. Cancer is the second-leading cause of death in the United States. Cancer is characterized by the development of abnormal, or mutant, cells that may take root anywhere in the body. If not controlled early, the cancerous cells may metastasize—establish colonies elsewhere in the body. Risk factors for cancer include heredity and behaviors such as smoking, drinking alcohol, eating animal fats, sunbathing, and prolonged psychological conditions such as depression.