Chapter 12 and 13

Intelligence

General mental ability, which psychologists refer to as "g" and is synonymous with "IQ" in everyday language, has been related to a person's emerging as a leader within a group. intelligence is a positive but modest predictor of leadership People with high EQ demonstrate a high level of self awareness, motivation, empathy, and social skills. what differentiates effective leaders from ineffective ones becomes their ability to control their own emotions and understand other people's emotions, their internal motivation, and their social skills.

Big Five Personality Traits

categorizing the characteristics that make up an individual's unique personality Openness to experience, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism

Exchange

give-and-take in which someone does something for you, and you do something for them in return. One experiment illustrates how a small initial gift can open people to a substantially larger request at a later time

Leader Decision Making

how leaders actually make decisions and the influence of decision-making styles on leader effectiveness and employee reactions 3 Types: autocratic decision making

People-oriented leader behaviors

showing concern for employee feelings and treating employees with respect. People-oriented leaders genuinely care about the well-being of their employees, and they demonstrate their concern in their actions and decisions. when leaders demonstrate people-oriented behaviors, employees tend to be more satisfied and react more positively.

Four Leadership Styles

Directive leaders Supportive leaders Participative leaders

Nonverbal impression management

Nonverbal impression management includes the clothes you choose to wear and your demeanor. Your smile, posture, and body language are important aspects of your nonverbal impression management.

Theory X.

main assumptions of Theory X managers are that employees are lazy, do not enjoy working, and will avoid expending energy on work whenever possible this theory suggests employees need to be forced to work through any number of control mechanisms ranging from threats to actual punishments

What Is Influence?

we all try to get others to do what we want.

The Zimbardo Study

he was authorized to place an ad in the paper that asked for male volunteers to help understand prison management. zimbardo was shocked with how quickly the expected roles emerged. Prisoners began to feel depressed and helpless. Guards began to be aggressive and abusive.

Other-focused impression management

includes complimenting or praising the other party, doing favors to them, or conforming to their opinions to make oneself more attractive and likeable to the other party. I fully agree with you—it is important for a salesperson to be proactive" or "You must really have excellent time management skills; I have a lot to learn from you"

Peer Influence

, peers need to be willing to influence each other without being destructively competitive.[] There are times to support each other and times to challenge—the end goal is to create better decisions and results for the organization and to hold each other accountable.

Three classic sets of studies illustrate how important it is to create checks and balances to help individuals resist the tendency to conform or to abuse authority.

-The Milgram Studies

Transformational leaders have four tools in their possession, which they use to influence employees and create commitment to the company goals

1) Charisma refers to behaviors leaders demonstrate that create confidence in, commitment to, and admiration for the leader 2)inspirational motivation, or come up with a vision that is inspiring to others. 3) intellectual stimulation, which means that they challenge organizational norms and status quo, and they encourage employees to think creatively and work harder. 4) individualized consideration, which means that they show personal care and concern for the well-being of their followers.

Decision-Making Styles

1) Decide. The leader makes the decision alone using available information. 2) Consult Individually. The leader obtains additional information from individual members before making the decision alone. 3) Consult as a group. The leader shares the problem with the entire group and asks for their opinion. The leader makes the final decision alone. 4) Facilitate. The leader shares information about the problem with group members collectively, and acts as a facilitator. The leader sets the parameters of the decision. 5) Delegate. The leader lets the team make the decision.

transactional leaders use three different methods.

Contingent rewards mean rewarding employees for their accomplishments. Active management by exception involves leaving employees to do their jobs without interference, but at the same time proactively predicting potential problems and preventing them from occurring. Passive management by exception is similar in that it involves leaving employees alone, but in this method the manager waits until something goes wrong before coming to the rescue.

agreeableness is less clear for leadership

Agreeable people who are modest, good natured, and avoid conflict are less likely to be perceived as leaders as they may be perceived as naïve or submissive

Leadership Around the Globe

All the leadership theories that we describe in this chapter are US-based. Thus, these leadership theories may have underlying cultural assumptions. The United States is an individualistic, performance-oriented culture, and the leadership theories suitable for this culture may not necessarily be suitable to other cultures. People who are perceived as leaders in one society may have different traits compared to people perceived as leaders in a different culture, because each society has a concept of ideal leader prototypes Around the world, people feel that honesty, decisiveness, being trustworthy, and being fair are related to leadership effectiveness. Visionary and charismatic leaders were found to be the most influential leaders around the world, followed by team-oriented and participative leaders. charismatic or supportive leadership appear to be universal, what makes someone charismatic or supportive may vary across nations. Some leadership traits seem to be universal. Visionary, team-oriented, and to a lesser extent participative leadership seem to be the preferred styles around the world.

Out of all personality traits, extraversion has the strongest relationship with both leader emergence and leader effectiveness.

Extraverts are sociable, assertive, and energetic people. They enjoy interacting with others in their environment and demonstrate self-confidence. Because they are both dominant and sociable in their environment

Bases of Power (written question)

Having power and using power are two different things. The fact that the manager has the ability to give rewards and punishments will be enough for employees to follow the request Researchers identified six sources of power, which include legitimate, reward, coercive, expert, information, and referent

The Milgram Studies

His work tested how far individuals would go in hurting another individual when told to do so by a researcher. In the end, all the participants were willing to go up to 300 volts, and a shocking 65% were willing to administer the maximum of 450 volts even as they heard screams of pain from the learner

Authentic Leadership

Leaders have to be a lot of things to a lot of people authentic leadership approach embraces this value: Its key advice is "be yourself." These trigger events over the course of our lifetime that shape our values, preferences, and priorities. Instead of trying to fit into societal expectations about what a leader should be, act like, or look like, authentic leaders derive their strength from their own past experiences Thus, one key characteristic of authentic leaders is that they are self aware They are introspective, understand where they are coming from, and have a thorough understanding of their own values and priorities. they are not afraid to act the way they are. In other words, they have high levels of personal integrity. Authentic leadership requires understanding oneself. Therefore, in addition to self reflection, feedback from others is needed to gain a true understanding of one's behavior and its impact on others.

Commonly Used Influence Tactics

Responses to influence attempts include resistance, compliance, or commitment. Resistance occurs when the influence target does not wish to comply with the request and either passively or actively repels the influence attempt. Compliance occurs when the target does not necessarily want to obey, but they do. Commitment occurs when the target not only agrees to the request but also actively supports it as well

Self-Esteem

The degree to which a person is at peace with oneself and has an overall positive assessment of one's self worth and capabilities seem to be relevant to whether someone is viewed as a leader. Leaders with high self-esteem support their subordinates more and, when punishment is administered, they punish more effectively. those with high self-esteem have greater levels of self-confidence and this affects their image in the eyes of their follower

Transformational Leadership

The theory distinguishes transformational and transactional leaders Transformational leaders lead employees by aligning employee goals with the leader's goals. Thus, employees working for transformational leaders start focusing on the company's well-being rather than on what is best for them as individual employees. transactional leaders ensure that employees demonstrate the right behaviors and provide resources in exchange.

Direction of Influence

The type of influence tactic used tends to vary based on the target. For example, you would probably use different influence tactics with your boss than you would with a peer or with employees working under you. Upward Influence

Path-Goal Theory of Leadership

based on the expectancy theory of motivation employees are motivated when they believe—or expect—that (a) their effort will lead to high performance, (b) their high performance will be rewarded, and (c) the rewards they will receive are valuable to them. the leader's main job is to make sure that all three of these conditions exist create satisfied and high-performing employees by making sure that employee effort leads to performance, and their performance is rewarded by desired rewards. The theory identifies four leadership styles. Each of these styles can be effective, depending on the characteristics of employees

Coalition tactics

a group of individuals working together toward a common goal to influence others. Common examples of coalitions within organizations are unions that may threaten to strike if their demands are not met. Coalitions also take advantage of peer pressure. The influencer tries to build a case by bringing in the unseen as allies to convince someone to think, feel, or do something.

1)Fiedler's Contingency Theory

a leader's style is measured by a scale called Least Preferred Coworker scale (LPC). 1)are asked to think of a person who is their least preferred coworker 2)rate this person in terms of how friendly, nice, and cooperative this person is. Imagine someone you did not enjoy working with. Can you describe this person in positive terms? If you can say that the person you hated working with was still a nice person, you would have a high LPC score. you have a people-oriented personality, and you can separate your liking of a person from your ability to work with that person. the person you hated working with was also someone you did not like on a personal level, you would have a low LPC score. To you, being unable to work with someone would mean that you also dislike that person. In other words, you are a task-oriented person. eory predicts that in "favorable" and "unfavorable" situations, a low LPC leader—one who has feelings of dislike for coworkers who are difficult to work with—would be successful. When situational favorableness is medium, a high LPC leader—one who is able to personally like coworkers who are difficult to work with—is more likely to succeed. three conditions creating situational favorableness: leader-subordinate relations, position power, and task structure

Abusive leadership

a sustained display of hostile verbal and nonverbal behaviors toward employees. Abusive leaders display behaviors such as giving employees the silent treatment, reminding them of their past mistakes, breaking promises, being rude and lying to employees.

Impression Management

actively shaping the way you are perceived by others. You can do this through your choice of clothing, the avatars or photos you use to represent yourself online, the descriptions of yourself on a résumé or in an online profile, you control information that make others see you in the way you want to be seen. On the job, the most effective approach to impression management is to do two things at once—build credibility and maintain authenticity. There may be aspects of your "true self" that you choose not to disclose at work, although you would disclose them to your close friends. to achieve group cohesiveness and meet professional expectations. But if you try to win social approval at work by being too different from your true self—contradicting your personal values—you might feel psychological distress.

another personality trait related to leadership is conscientiousness.

are organized, take initiative, and demonstrate persistence in their endeavors. Conscientious people are more likely to emerge as leaders and be effective in that role.

Contingency

attention moved toward specifying the situations under which different styles would be effective.

knowing about leader traits helps organizations select the right people into positions of responsibilities

be aware that not all traits are equally effective in predicting leadership potential across all circumstances. Some organizational situations allow leader traits to make a greater difference. the conditions under which different traits affect a leader's performance,

Vroom and Yetton's Normative Decision Model

decision-making tool to help leaders determine how much involvement they should seek when making decisions starts by having leaders answer several key questions and working their way through a decision tree based on their responses he leader may make the decision alone after gathering information from employees and is not advised to delegate the decision to the team or to make the decision alone.

Servant Leadership

defines the leader's role as serving the needs of others. the primary mission of the leader is to develop employees and help them reach their goals. Servant leaders put their employees first, understand their personal needs and desires, empower them, and help them develop in their careers servant leaders feel an obligation to their employees, customers, and the external community. Employee happiness is seen as an end in itself, and servant leaders sometimes sacrifice their own well-being to help employees succeed. Also interested in serving the community. In other words, their efforts to help others are not restricted to company insiders, and they are genuinely concerned about the broader community surrounding their organization. its explicit focus on ethics, community development, and self-sacrifice are distinct characteristics of this leadership style. results in higher levels of customer service

Participative leaders

employees are involved in the making of important decisions. Participative leadership may be more effective when employees have high levels of ability, and when the decisions to be made are personally relevant to them. For employees with a high internal locus of control (those who believe that they control their own destiny), participative leadership is a way of indirectly controlling organizational decisions,

Theory Y

employees are not lazy, can enjoy work, and will put effort into furthering organizational goals. will act in the best interests of the organization given the chance, Theory Y managers allow employees autonomy and help them become committed to particular goals.

Leadership and Ethics (WRITTEN QUESTION)

employees often look to role models, influential people, and their managers for guidance in how to behave. Unfortunately, research shows that people tend to follow leaders or other authority figures even when doing so can put others at risk. when evaluating whether someone is an effective leader, subordinates pay attention to the level of ethical behaviors the leader demonstrates. Ethical leaders have a positive influence over the level of ethical behaviors displayed in their unit. By acting as a role model for ethical behavior, rewarding ethical behaviors, publicly punishing unethical behaviors, and setting high expectations for the level of ethics, leaders play a key role in encouraging ethical behaviors in the workplace. authentic leaders have a moral compass, they know what is right and what is wrong, and they have the courage to follow their convictions 1) leaders are ethical themselves, and 2) they create an organizational climate in which employees understand that ethical behaviors are desired, valued, and expected. More contemporary approaches such as servant leadership and authentic leadership explicitly recognize the importance of ethics for leadership effectiveness

democratic decision making,

employees participate in the making of the decision.

Pressure

exerting undue influence on someone to do what you want or else something undesirable will occur. This often includes threats and frequent interactions until the target agrees. managers with low referent power tend to use pressure tactics more frequently than those with higher referent power.

The Asch Studies

individuals could be influenced to say that two lines were the same length when one was clearly shorter than the other. using groups of four or more participants who were told they were in experiments of visual perception. they assumed that the rest of the group, for whatever reason, had more information regarding the correct choice. It only took three other individuals saying the wrong answer for the participant to routinely agree with the group. . This finding illustrates the power that even a small dissenting minority can have.

Task-oriented leader behaviors

involve structuring the roles of subordinates, providing them with instructions, and behaving in ways that will increase the performance of the group. Task-oriented behaviors are directives given to employees to get things done and to ensure that organizational goals are met. when leaders are task oriented, productivity tends to be a bit higher.

The Relationship Between Dependency and power Dependency

is directly related to power. That is, the more that a person or unit is dependent on you, the more power you have over them. The strategic contingencies model provides a good description of how dependency works. According to the model, dependency is power that a person or unit gains from their ability to handle actual or potential problems facing the organization

Downward Influence

is the ability to influence employees lower than you. This is best achieved through an inspiring vision. By articulating a clear vision, you help people see the end goal and move toward it the better the quality of the relationship between the subordinate and their supervisor, the more positively resistance to influence attempts are seen.

Power

is the ability to influence the behavior of others to get what you want.

autocratic decision making

leaders make the decision alone without necessarily involving employees in the decision-making process

laissez-faire decision making

leave employees alone to make the decision. The leader provides minimum guidance and involvement in the decision. the effectiveness of the style the leader is using depends on the circumstances. scientists viewed democratic leadership most favorably and autocratic leadership least favorably the effectiveness of each style seems to depend on who is using it. create high levels of ambiguity about job expectations on the part of employee

Women and Leadership

men are not more task oriented and women are not more relationally oriented than the opposite sex. women tend to display democratic leadership and are less likely to demonstrate autocratic leadership compared to men. , with women displaying higher levels of transformational leadership styles. while women were rated as demonstrating higher performance on their jobs, they were rated lower in promotion potential

Legitimating tactics

occur when the appeal is based on legitimate or position power. "By the power vested in me...": This tactic relies upon compliance with rules, laws, and regulations.

Expert Power

omes from knowledge and skill. Jeff Bezos, CEO of Amazon.com, has expert power from his ability to know what customers want—even before they can articulate it. Others who have expert power in an organization include long-time employees, Many of these firms utilize a flat or matrix structure in which clear lines of legitimate power become blurred as everyone communicates with everyone else regardless of position.

Substitutability

one's ability to find another option that works as well as the one offered. "How difficult would it be for me to find another way to this?" The harder it is to find a substitute, the more dependent the person becomes and the more power someone else has over them. If you are the only person who knows how to make a piece of equipment work, you will be very powerful in the organization countries with large supplies of crude oil have traditionally had power to the extent that other countries need oil to function.

Legitimate Power

one's organizational role or position. For example, a manager can assign projects, a police officer can arrest a citizen, and a teacher assigns grades. Others comply with the requests these individuals make because they accept the legitimacy of the position, whether they like or agree with the request or not.

Positive and Negative Consequences of Power

powerful CEOs can align an entire organization to move together to achieve goals. Paul Farmer, a doctor who brought hospitals, medicine, and doctors to remote Haiti, and Greg Mortenson, a mountaineer who founded the Central Asia Institute and built schools across Pakistan autocracy can destroy companies and countries alike. The phrase, "Power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely One reason that power can be so easily abused is because individuals are often quick to conform.

Self-focused impression management

promoting and enhancing one's qualities to create a specific image in the eyes of the other person regarding one's qualities "I am a hard worker" or "I really enjoy customer interaction" are examples of self-focused impression management in a job interview context.

Supportive leaders

provide emotional support to employees. They treat employees well, care about them on a personal level, and they are encouraging. Supportive leadership is predicted to be effective when employees are under a lot of stress or performing boring, repetitive jobs. When employees know exactly how to perform their jobs but their jobs are unpleasant, supportive leadership may be more effective.

Directive leaders

provide specific directions to their employees. They lead employees by clarifying role expectations, setting schedules, and making sure that employees know what to do on a given work day. The theory predicts that the directive style will work well when employees are experiencing role ambiguity on the job. If people are unclear about how to go about doing their jobs, giving them specific directions will motivate them. On the other hand, if employees already have role clarity, and if they are performing boring, routine, and highly structured jobs, giving them direction does not help

Ingratiation

refers to different forms of making others feel good about themselves. Ingratiation includes any form of flattery done either before or during the influence attempt those résumés that were accompanied with a cover letter containing ingratiating information were rated higher than résumés without this information.

Personal appeal

refers to helping another person because you like them and they asked for your help. Therefore, personal appeals are most effective with people who know and like you.

Conformity

refers to people's tendencies to behave consistently with social norms. ex. way to stand in elevator On the other hand, conformity can be pretty serious, such as when it results in engaging in unethical behaviors. This might be because you trust the intentions of someone you admire and respect who has power over you military guards at Abu Ghraib said they were just following orders when they tortured prisoners.[ People conform because they want to fit in with and please those around them.

Consultation

refers to the influence agent's asking others for help in directly influencing or planning to influence another person or group. Consultation is most effective in organizations and cultures that value democratic decision making.

Information Power

similar to expert power but differs in its source Experts tend to have a vast amount of knowledge or skill, whereas information power is distinguished by access to specific information. For example, knowing price information gives a person information power during negotiations. those who are able to span boundaries and serve to connect different parts of the organizations often have a great deal of information power.

Referent Power

stems from the personal characteristics of the person such as the degree to which we like, respect, and want to be like them. Referent power is often called charisma—the ability to attract others, win their admiration, and hold them spellbound.

Situational Leadership

t leaders must use different leadership styles depending on their followers' development level. employee readiness (defined as a combination of their competence and commitment levels) is the key factor determining the proper leadership style. to be effective: leaders must use the right style of behaviors at the right time in each employee's development. It is recognized that followers are key to a leader's success. Employees who are at the earliest stages of developing are seen as being highly committed but with low competence for the tasks. Thus, leaders should be highly directive and less supportive. As the employee becomes more competent, the leader should engage in more coaching behaviors. Supportive behaviors are recommended once the employee is at moderate to high levels of competence. And finally, delegating is the recommended approach for leaders dealing with employees who are both highly committed and highly competent.

Integrity

tend to have a moral compass and demonstrate honesty and integrity. Leaders whose integrity is questioned lose their trustworthiness, and they hurt their company's business along the way.

Reward Power

the ability to grant a reward, such as an increase in pay, a perk, or an attractive job assignment. Reward power tends to accompany legitimate power and is highest when the reward is scarce Another example of reward power comes from Bill Gross, founder of Idealab, who has the power to launch new companies or not. He created his company with the idea of launching other new companies as soon as they could develop viable ideas.

Upward Influence

the ability to influence your boss and others in positions higher than yours. Upward influence may include appealing to a higher authority or citing the firm's goals as an overarching reason for others to follow your cause. Upward influence can also take the form of an alliance with a higher status person (or with the perception that there is such an alliance).[] As complexity grows, the need for this upward influence grows as well—the ability of one person at the top to know enough to make all the decisions becomes less likely By helping higher-ups be more effective, employees can gain more power for themselves and their unit as well. On the flip side, allowing yourself to be influenced by those reporting to you may build your credibility and power as a leader who listens research establishes that subordinates' use of rationality, assertiveness, and reciprocal exchange was related to more favorable outcomes such as promotions and raises

Coercive Power

the ability to take something away or punish someone for noncompliance. Coercive power often works through fear, and it forces people to do something that ordinarily they would not choose to do.

Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory

the type of relationship leaders have with their followers (members of the organization) is the key to understanding how leaders influence employees In high-quality LMX relationships, the leader forms a trust-based relationship with the member. The leader and member like each other, help each other when needed, and respect each other. high LMX members are more satisfied with their jobs, more committed to their companies, have higher levels of clarity about what is expected of them, and perform at a higher level low-quality LMX relationships, the leader and the member have lower levels of trust, liking, and respect toward each other. the leader and member do not go beyond their formal job descriptions in their exchanges. In other words, the member does his job, the leader provides rewards and punishments, and the relationship does not involve high levels of loyalty or obligation toward each other.

Scarcity

the uniqueness of a resource. The more difficult something is to obtain, the more valuable it tends to be. Effective persuaders exploit this reality by making an opportunity or offer seem more attractive because it is limited or exclusive.

Importance

the value of the resource. The key question here is "How important is this?" If the resources or skills you control are vital to the organization, you will gain some power. The more vital the resources that you control are, the more power you will have.

Achievement-oriented leaders

they set goals for employees and encourage them to reach their goals. Their style challenges employees and focuses their attention on work-related goals. This style is likely to be effective when employees have both high levels of ability and high levels of achievement motivation. The theory's biggest contribution may be that it highlights the importance of a leader's ability to change styles depending on the circumstances.

Inspirational appeals

to tap into our values, emotions, and beliefs to gain support for a request or course of action. In the United States, when President John F. Kennedy said, "Ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country," he appealed to the higher selves of an entire nation. Effective inspirational appeals are authentic, personal, big-thinking, and enthusiastic.

Leader Behaviors

two broad categories of behaviors: -task-oriented behaviors (initiating structure) - people-oriented behaviors (consideration)

Rational persuasion

using facts, data, and logical arguments to try to convince others that your point of view is the best alternative. This is the most commonly applied influence tactic. "May I go to the head of the line because I have copies to make?" the number of people who agreed jumped to over 90%. The word because was the only difference. Effective rational persuasion includes the presentation of factual information that is clear and specific, relevant, and timely.