Chapter 13
What factors are involved in whether children are accepted, neglected, or rejected by their peers? Attractiveness
"Beautiful is good" stereotype Body build -Soft, rounded, chubby body type is associated with negative adjectives; children with this body build are the least popular -Athletic and muscular body type is associated with positive adjectives; children with this body build are most popular -See good looking people and we think that they will be smart, nice, funny, charming, and we behave accordingly -Self-fulfilling prophecy
What did Harry Harlow's work with rhesus monkeys show regarding the influence of parents and peers on social adjustment? What they found
"Mother-Only" Monkeys were not socially competent -Now interacting with normal monkeys -Avoided age-mates most of the time -When they did interact, they were aggressive to their peers -These problems persisted into adulthood "Peer-Only" Monkeys were also socially abnormal -Now interacting with normal monkeys -Clung to their peers and were mutually attached to each other -Seemed to mutually attached to each other -Unusually aggressive to those outside of peer group -Became highly agitated over minor stresses -Didn't seem to develop emotion regulation abilities We need both interactions to learn how to function properly in peer groups
Have an understanding of how sociability changes across childhood and adolescence: In middle childhood?
"Peer Groups" 10-20 kids Four characteristics of Peer Groups Interact on regular basis Define sense of belonging -You're in you're out -Who is a part and who isn't a part, can be let in, and people can leave -Usually gender divided Formulate norms for appearance and behavior -What's cool to wear -What we should be interested in Develop structure and organization -Hierarchical -Not every child is equal -Leader, henchmen, then everyone else falls down from there -Leader and henchmen choose what is cool -They like Pokémon so then group gets defined by Pokémon
How do parents influence peer sociability?
-Act as "booking agents" -Parental monitoring and Coaching -Parent-Child Relationships and Peer Sociability -Patterns of childrearing and sociability
What are cross-pressures?
-Conflicts stemming from differences in the values and practices advocated by parents and those advocated by peers -Parent/peer conflicts are kept to a minimum because parents and peers tend to exert their influences in different domains -Teens will turn to peers to influential on issues such as what styles to wear and which clubs, social events, hobbies, and other recreational activities to choose -Teens depend on parents when the issue involves scholastic or occupational goals or other future-oriented decisions -Conflict is kept to a minimum also because parents influence the company that the kids keep, so well adjusted and securely attached teens will surround themselves with others like them and stay out of trouble, leading to less conflict
What are some costs of friendships? Conclusion
-Having friendships that are untrustworthy, non-supportive, and conflictual can indeed contribute to poor developmental outcomes
What are the benefits of engaging in mixed-age interactions?
-However these asymmetries may help children to acquire certain social competencies -Presence of young peers may foster the development of compassion, care giving, pro-social inclinations, assertiveness, and leadership skills in older kids -Younger children may benefit by acquiring a variety of new skills from older playmates and by learning how to seek assistance and defer gracefully to these more powerful associates -Peer status is more flexible than sibling, which is fixed, so mixed age peer interactions may provide children with experiences they might otherwise miss in their sibling interactions -May help a habitually domineering elder sibling learn to be more accommodating (when interacting with older peers) -May help an oppressed younger sibling learn to lean and to show compassion (when learning to deal with even younger children) -May help an only child acquire both of these social competencies
How do parents influence peer sociability? -Act as "booking agents"
-Path to positive or negative peer relations often beings at home and that parents may either foster of inhibit peer sociability -Influence the sheer amount of contact their children have with peers -Residence is one influence, do you live in a neighborhood with parks and places for the children to meet peers, or in a place with few playmates? -Act as "booking agents" and arrange visits by playmates, enroll their children in day care or nursery school, or encourage their participation in other organized activities for children -Preschool programs that emphasize a social curriculum tend to develop social skills at an earlier age than those who remain at home -Children who had established a secure rather than insecure attachments with a preschool teacher were not only inclined to form close friendships during the preschool period, but were also more likely to have close friendships five to ten years later -Parents may indeed foster their children's social competence with peers by arranging for them to receive care in a high quality preschool or childcare program
What are some costs of friendships? Transactional process
-Socially unskilled children with problems tend to band together and form low quality friendships, often with deviant peers. These deviant friends then engage in lots of deviant talk, which glamorizes problem behavior, providing a kind of deviancy training that exacerbates a child's or an adolescent's antisocial conduct and other adjustment problems
What are some costs of friendships? Co-rumination
-Some very close friends are inclined to co-ruminate, that is they tend to excessively discuss and seem to be almost obsessed with their personal problems -More co rumination among girls predicted increases over time in anxiety and depression, which in turn fostered increased co-rumination -Negative impact on emotional adjustment
What are some costs of friendships? Poor quality of friendship costs
-Students when entering a new school year, whose friendships are more rivalrous and conflictual display poorer attitudes towards school, often becoming less engaged in scholastic activated and increasingly disruptive -Friendship networks of these children are often comprised of other socially unskilled antisocial individuals who are not particularly supportive companions and are inclined to talk about and encourage maladaptive patterns of behavior -Those who have more deviant non-supportive friends are at risk of battering or otherwise mistreating romantic partners
What are the drawbacks of engaging in mixed-age interactions?
-Tend to be unbalanced with one child possessing more power (usually the older one) than the other
What are some costs of friendships? Insecurely attached children
-Those who are insecurely attached to their parents also tend to have friendships that are non-supportive and lacking in trust -Socially unskilled children who are insecurely attached or depressed may even select friends who view them and treat them negatively, perhaps helping to perpetuate their negative self-concepts -Low-quality friendships tend to be highly conflictual alliances in which children may respond to disagreements with friends by seeking revenge or behaving in a hostile rather than a conciliatory manner
What are the developmental functions of dating relationships? Phases
1.) Initiation phase: early in adolescence, the major focus is on the self- on coming to see oneself as someone who can relate in romantic ways to members of the other sex 2.) Status phase: By mid-adolescence, having a romantic relationship with the right kind of partner is important for status if it brings acceptance in the larger peer group 3.) Affection phase: By late adolescence, one's focus is on the relationship itself rather than on the self or the peer status. Romantic relationships are now more personal and caring, and apart from the context of the larger crowd 4.) Bonding phase: In emerging adults, emotional intimacies achieved in the affection phase are joined with longer-term commitments to create lasting bonds- true loving attachments
Have an understanding of how sociability changes across childhood and adolescence: In toddlerhood?
12-18 Months old -Peers are "responsive toys" -Don't get agency of peers -Treat it like a really cool robot, gets frustrated when it doesn't do what they want 18 months -Coordinated interactions with age mates 20-24 months -Play has strong verbal component
What did Berndt (1979) find regarding age changes in conformity to peers? At what age is antisocial conformity the highest?
9th grade
What did Berndt (1979) find regarding age changes in conformity to peers? Test
Age changes in conformity to peers and parents Antisocial behavior -Egg a car, friend wants to, you don't -Conformity does in crease from elementary to 9th grade, then drops off again Prosocial behavior -Go to orphanage when you want to or go to homeless shelter like your friends did Neutral behavior -Movies (what you want) or bowling (What your friend wanted) Did with peers and parents Give the kids a beniet Your best friend wants to go egg a car do you go and do it with them even if you don't want to? -Are you conforming
What factors play a role in why some kids are chronic victims of bullying?
Aggressive -Put themselves into situations that cause others to bully them Emotions -Anger -Emotionally reactive- get upset really easily -Perhaps children like to watch other children "blow up" Provocation?
What is the difference between aggressive-rejected and withdrawn-rejected kids?
Aggressive-Rejected -Overestimate social standing -Not seeing that they are problematic, they think they are still cool and everything is fine While Withdrawn-Rejected -Socially awkward, socially anxious, aware of their social standing, withdraw from peers -Leads to more symptoms of depression and anxiety, they don't like not being liked
What is peer victimization?
Also known as bullying One child attempts to physically or psychologically harm another child who is either weaker or perceived as weaker -Without provocation? ---Not really in the equation -One is higher than the other ---Hierarchical Results in one child becoming the victim in the relationship
What did Berndt (1979) find regarding age changes in conformity to peers? Findings
Antisocial Conformity to peers -Increases from 3rd-9th grades then declines -Peaks overall in 9th grade -Conformity to antisocial behavior is related to their evaluations of those behaviors Relationship between age changes and parent-peer conformity -3rd grade: Side with parents against peers -6th grade: Peer influence increases with no change in parent-child conflict -9th grade: Opposition between parents and peers is strongest -11-12th grade: Peer conformity decreases, Some opposition between parent and peer conformity but not much
What is the high school reunion effect?
Are the variables we use as "good" outcomes for adolescents really positive? -Likeability; Popularity; Peer acceptance -Popular in high school is different than popular in adulthood ---High school: Drink, drugs, have sex, party ---Adulthood: Were nerds, now successful , independent with a job and money High School Reunion Effect -Ingredients for successful adolescents are NOT the ingredients for successful adults! -The "Adolescent Bind" ---Conform to peers or conform to adults??
How do parents influence peer sociability? Patterns of childrearing and sociability
Authoritative parenting seems to promote good social skills and positive peer realtions
What factors play a role in why some kids are chronic victims of bullying? Provocation?
Boulton & Underwood (1992) -When asked, most bullies claim they were provoked, but most victims claim they did not provoke the attack -Nobody wants to except the blame! Underwood & Bjonstad (2001) -Experimental procedure -Provoked children using a rigged computer game -Even when provoked, none of the children attacked the confederate -Even those that were bullies, didn't react -Evidence that provocation is not essential for victimization More to bullying that just being provoked
What are some advantages of friendships?
Buffer effect -One supportive friend can drastically reduce the negative effects of victimization, problematic family environments, rejection Teaching Social Problem-Solving -Learn conflict resolutions Prepare for Adult Romantic Relationships -Teaches intimacy, self-disclosure, caring and compassionate attitudes
What are the behavioral attributes of popular, neglected, and rejected (aggressive-rejected and withdrawn-rejected) kids? • Popular
Calm, outgoing, friendly, initiate interactions, amicably resolve disputes Includes impact and preference More likely to be friendly likeable person Not shy, willing to go out and interact Good with conflict resolution
What are cliques?
Cliques: Small group (2-8) of friends who share common interests and activities -Early Adolescence -More close knit and intimate -Mean girls-> cliques are really not as popular in late high school, more early adolescence -Not every kid is a member of a clique ---Liaisons-> jump from clique to clique ---Outcasts-> don't belong to any
Have an understanding of how sociability changes across childhood and adolescence: In adolescence?
Cliques: Small group (2-8) of friends who share common interests and activities Crowds: Large, reputationally-based peer group who may or may not interact on a regular basis
What are some costs of friendships?
Co-rumination Insecurely attached children Poor quality of friendship costs Transactional process Conclusion
What are crowds? When do they typically emerge?
Crowds: Large, reputationally-based peer group who may or may not interact on a regular basis -Middle Adolescence -Ex. Jocks, Preps, Nerds, Skaters, etc. -Based on stereotypes -Universal phenomenon -All you have to do is look the part and fit the stereotype not real interactions -11th grade these ideas are kind of dropped -Tends to die away by late adolescence
What are the developmental functions of dating relationships?
Dating helps teens to achieve autonomy from both parents and peers, to gain status as a grown-up, and from an evolutionary perspective, to distance themselves from family members to avoid incestuous relationships A study of 10th and 11th graders found that entering a steady dating relationship is good for one's self-esteem and protective in the sense that dating teens were less involved in problem behaviors such as drinking and minor delinquency, and their acceptance by romantic partners can help to compensate for poor relationships with parents Older adolescents who date tend to be better adjusted emotionally than those who don't
What are cliques? When do they typically emerge?
Early Adolescence
How can we improve social skills of rejected children? Academic-Skills training
Elevate their social status by improving their academic skills and bringing them back into the mainstream of school activities Extensive academic-skills training to low-achieving, socially rejected 4th graders improved the children's reading and math achievement and their social standing
Have an understanding of how sociability changes across childhood and adolescence: What does sociability look like in infancy?
First months of life -Babies are interested in other babies Middle of first year -First interactions with other babies -Babbling, smiling, offering toys, gesturing
What did Harry Harlow's work with rhesus monkeys show regarding the influence of parents and peers on social adjustment? How they tested
Harlow examined role of parental and peer influences using two groups of rhesus monkeys: -"Mother-Only" group: Raised by their mothers with absolutely no contact with peers -"Peer-only" group: Separated from their mothers and other adults soon after birth and raised by their peers -Left to raise themselves, isolated, no adult interactions -Looked at them in adulthood
What are the 4 characteristics of peer groups in middle childhood?
Interact on regular basis Define sense of belonging -You're in you're out -Who is a part and who isn't a part, can be let in, and people can leave -Usually gender divided Formulate norms for appearance and behavior -What's cool to wear -What we should be interested in Develop structure and organization -Hierarchical -Not every child is equal -Leader, henchmen, then everyone else falls down from there -Leader and henchmen choose what is cool -They like Pokémon so then group gets defined by Pokémon
Mixed Age Interactions
Interactions among children that differ in age by a year or more
What factors are involved in whether children are accepted, neglected, or rejected by their peers? Temperament
Irritable children at risk for problematic peer relations Inhibited children at risk to be neglected or rejected by peers
How can we improve social skills of rejected children? Cognitive Approaches to Social-Skills training
Modeling strategies work better when accompanied by verbal rationales and explanations, implying that interventions that prompt the child to imagine the positive consequences of skillful social overtures are likely to be effective Coaching: is a cognitive social-learning technique in which the therapist displays one or more social skills, carefully explains the rationales for using them, allows children to practice such behavior, and then suggests how the children might improve on their performances Also should try to attempt to improve children's role taking skills and social problem solving abilities Emphasize that aggression is inappropriate and help them to generate nonaggressive solutions to conflict Social Problem-Solving training: method of social-skills training in which an adult helps children (through role playing or role taking training) to make less hostile attributions about harm-doing and to generate nonaggressive solutions to conflict Social-Skills training programs are clearly more effective when undertaken early, before rejected youngsters band together into deviant peer cliques that encourage antisocial conduct
Make sure you can describe each of the 4 forms of play: nonsocial activity, parallel play, associative play, and cooperative play
Nonsocial Activity Parallel Play -Near each other but doing our own kind of thing Associative Play -Parallel play becomes more interactive -Might share toys -But still doing their own major projects, but may talk to each other Cooperative Play -Working together towards a common goal -Equally sharing in the activity -Working together to build one castle Is nonsocial bad? But is it really immature to sit and work on a puzzle by yourself? -No not at all -Shouldn't be concerned if child is engaging in nonsocial play, only be concerned if it is the ONLY form of play they use
What are the 4 sociometric categories? How are they measured? Neglected
Not mentioned by many children at all on survey Nobody says they like them or dislike them Are they natural? Are they just forgotten?
What is sociability?
One's willingness to interact with others and to seek their attention or approval Describes a child's willingness to engage others in social interaction and to seek their attention or approval Both social and cognitive developments contribute to the growth of peer sociability over the first two years
How do parents influence peer sociability? Parent-Child Relationships and Peer Sociability
Parents may indirectly influence their children's reactions to peers by virtue of their behavior as caregivers, authority figures, and disciplinarians Attachment theorists argue that the quality of a child's primary attachments will influence his or her reactions to other people later in life Those that are insecurely attached are much less sociable than those that are Secure attachments do indeed promote social competencies
How do parents influence peer sociability? Parental monitoring and Coaching
Parents who arrange home visits by playmates are also in a position to influence their child by monitoring his or her peer interactions to ensure that play proceeds smoothly and amicably, without major conflicts Preschoolers whose parents had indirectly monitored their peer interactions were much more liked by their nursery school classmates than those whose parents closely monitored and intruded on their play activities However conflictual peer interactions may promote direct parental monitoring rather than the other way around If parents coach their children on pro-social strategies for resolving conflicts or for gaining entry into a group of peers at play and if this coaching is positive, supportive, and optimistic, their children are likely to develop a pro-social orientation that fosters positive peer relationships Mothers who establish less directive and more egalitarian relations with their children, encouraging them to make reasonable requests and allowing them to influence their behavior are teaching their children how to communicate in ways that will enable them to successfully influence their playmates Parents can foster the development of social skills and positive peer relations by: 1.) Calmly discussing basic social courtesies and teaching their children prosocial strategies for initiating and maintaining social interactions 2.) Indirectly monitoring their children's transactions with peers to ensure that they comply with the rules of social etiquette they have learned 3.) Allowing playmates considerable freedom to structure their own play activities and to resolve most minor disputes on their own
Have an understanding of how sociability changes across childhood and adolescence: In preschool?
Parten (1932): Play can be divided into 4 categories: Nonsocial Activity Parallel Play Associative Play Cooperative Play Is nonsocial bad? But is it really immature to sit and work on a puzzle by yourself? -No not at all
What are the behavioral attributes of popular, neglected, and rejected (aggressive-rejected and withdrawn-rejected) kids? • Neglected
Passive and shy, lack social assertiveness Not less socially skilled, not more lonely, and not more distressed about their social position than average children Tend to not be noticed Hang around the fringes of the peer group Really struggle with assertiveness Comfortable with where they are
What are the 4 sociometric categories? How are they measured?
Popular Rejected Neglected Controversial
What factors are involved in whether children are accepted, neglected, or rejected by their peers? Cognitive Skills
Popular children have good role-taking skills and perform better academically -Can put themselves in others shoes, use role taking to behave accordingly so they don't cause harm to their peers
What are the 4 sociometric categories? How are they measured? Rejected
Rated by many children as someone they would least like to spend time with
What are the 4 sociometric categories? How are they measured? Popular
Rated by many children as someone they would most like to spend time with
How can we improve social skills of rejected children? Reinforcement and modeling therapies
Reinforce children for displaying socially appropriate behaviors such as cooperation and sharing Expose children to social models who display a variety of socially skilled acts
How can we improve social skills of rejected children?
Reinforcement and modeling therapies Cognitive Approaches to Social-Skills training Academic-Skills training
What is the difference between social impact and social preference?
Researchers have argued that just because you are popular doesn't necessarily mean you are liked Social Impact Do people notice you Social Preference Do your peers actually like you as a person?
What is the difference between social impact and social preference? How are they measured?
Social Impact Impact = Liking score + Disliking Score Do people notice you? Doesn't matter if they like you or not, but rather do you make an impact on the social group Social Preference Preference = Liking score - Disliking Score Do your peers actually like you as a person?
What are the behavioral attributes of popular, neglected, and rejected (aggressive-rejected and withdrawn-rejected) kids? • Withdrawn-Rejected
Socially awkward, socially anxious, aware of their social standing, withdraw from peers Most likely to be victims of bullying -Isolated -Alone -Awkward Leads to more symptoms of depression and anxiety, they don't like not being liked
What are sociometric procedures?
Sociometric Procedures **most reliable** Give a questionnaire to a class and ask them to "Name 3 students in your class that you would most like to play with" and "Name three students in your class that you would least like to play with" Nomination procedure Direct info from children, the ones who know peer dynamic best School districts may not like researchers do this because they think it is bullying
What are the 4 sociometric categories? How are they measured? Controversial
Some children would like to spend time with them, some children would not like to spend time with them 5% of population Not a lot of research on them Regina George= cool so everyone wants to hang out with them, but mean so no one likes them
What are social skills?
Thoughts, actions, and emotional regulatory activities that enable children to achieve personal or social goals while maintaining harmony with their social partners Toddlers who are securely attached tot heir caregivers are generally more outgoing and more attractive as playmates than those that are insecurely attached, thus implying that the sensitive, responsive care giving that securely attached infants receive contributes in a positive way to the development of social skills.
What is a peer?
Two or more persons who are operating at similar levels of behavioral complexity Social equals -About same developmental level -Usually around same age Are peers important? Are good relationships with peers important?
What are the behavioral attributes of popular, neglected, and rejected (aggressive-rejected and withdrawn-rejected) kids? • Aggressive-Rejected
Use physical or relational aggression towards peers Interpret hostility in others' behaviors -Hostile attribution bias -"They bumped into me deliberately cause they're a jerk!" and retaliate Overestimate social standing Highest risk of remaining rejected over time Not seeing that they are problematic, they think they are still cool and everything is fine
What factors are involved in whether children are accepted, neglected, or rejected by their peers? Parents
Warm and sensitive parents tend to raise accepted children Hostile or uninvolved parents tend to raise disliked children
What factors are involved in whether children are accepted, neglected, or rejected by their peers?
• Parents • Temperament • Cognitive Skills • Attractiveness
