chapter 13 Research and Data Analysis (REVIEW)

___________ are those in which a number is assigned to a specific category such as 1 = male and 2 = female.

Nominal variables

_________, which can include both numbers and text, are an excellent way to display data. They can be used to organize and categorize data and to examine the detail of a specific concept, category, or response. The key to building it is to make it stand alone so anyone reading it can understand the information displayed.

Tables

The properties of a standard normal distribution include:

The appearance of a bell-shaped curve that is symmetrical about the mean and extends infinitely in both directions (positive and negative). The total area under the curve equals 1, Being defined by two parameters: the mean, m, and the standard deviation.

True or False: A box-and-whisker plot graphically depicts data set medians.

True

Which of the following examines research study plans to determine appropriateness for human subjects? a. AHIMA b. IRB c. NIH d. WHO

b. IRB

A curve or distribution in which the tail is pulled to the right is called which of the following types of distribution? a. Negatively skewed b. Positively skewed c. Normal d. Bimodal

b. Positively skewed

The organization whose primary focus is improving healthcare across the world is the: a. CDC b. WHO c. AHRQ d. Joint Commission

b. WHO

A _________ is like a scatter chart except that it compares three data variables. Therefore, when presenting information, it can illustrate more data if that meets the needs and focus of the situation.

bubble chart

The research study requires data to be compiled and summarized. This is _________data. a. Individual b. Comparative c. Aggregate d. Evaluative

c. Aggregate

Healthcare data that is housed within the EHR, or data collected from a case study, a focus group of individuals, or during an interview or survey are all considered ____________.

individual data

A ___________is a graphical device used to display continuous data and to show changes or trends of the data over time. It is best to use when there are many different data points or more than one set of data to plot; multiple lines can be put on one graph for very useful comparisons. The x-axis designates time (such as month, day, or year) and the y-axis shows the quantity of the plotted data

line graph

The________ is the average of a group of numerical values. To calculate it, first the data group must be obtained. used primarily with continuous or quantitative variables, such as interval or ratio.

mean

When values are ranked, the ________is the value in which there is the same amount of numbers above and below. It is the middlemost value when arranged in numerical order. used mainly for ordinal or ranked variables The first step to compute it is to rank these values from lowest to highest:

median

A _____________approach includes using both quantitative and qualitative data in a research study design. includes the following aspects: Using research questions that focus on real-life, multilevel perspectives, across many cultures Using multiple methods (for example, intervention trials and in-depth interviews) Integrating these multiple methods or combining them to extract the strengths of each Focusing the research within philosophical and theoretical positions

mixed-methodology

The __________ is the value that occurs most frequently in a given set of observations or values. They are used mostly with nominal variables

mode

All qualitative variables are discrete; qualitative variables can be subdivided into _____________type.

nominal or ordinal

In a _____________, the mean, median, and mode are equal. It plays a key role in statistics because many variables such as height, cholesterol, and body temperature

normal distribution

Which points describe randomization

participants can get into any of the groups. the placement of participants in groups is not planed. there are three groups (experimental, control, and comparison)

The ___________ strives to improve the quality and accessibility of healthcare. a. CDC b. AHRQ c. WHO d. HHS

b. AHRQ

This type of research includes those studies that pose only minimal risk to human subjects. a. Exempt b. Expedited c. Full board approval d. Clinical trial research

b. Expedited

true or false: Regression is used to determine relationships between the variables.

true

NIH also provides guidance for ethical research. The seven elements per the NIH include

validity, informed consent, respect for participants, review of risk-benefit, subject selection, social/clinical worth, and independent assessment

The___________ is the average of the squared deviations from the mean. Its symbol is σ2 for populations and s2 for samples.

variance

Every table should be composed of the following:

•Table legend or title •Column titles •The body of the table that includes the actual data •Lines that divide certain parts of the table •Footnote or reference citation if the table text was taken from an article or other source

chi-square tests

•Used to determine and then present information on data frequency •Two types; goodness of fit and test for independence •Determine which one to use based on the number of variables present in the research

The steps for information analysis include the following:

1. Determine the objective of the information being presented. What are you trying to say or show with the data? What was the research focused on and how does that relate to the problem? 2. Consider who the information will be presented to. How can you make the information clear and concise for the audience? 3. Review the information on the various statistical tests to determine which one fits the needs of your presentation. 4. Consider a team approach that includes an individual well-versed in statistics. If working with clinical data, a person with a background in that area should be on the team. Also, consider having an editor to review the work before it is finalized.

Exempt research activities that are the most closely related to HIM fall into the following three main categories:

1. Research conducted in an educational setting involving normal education practices such as testing different teaching methods 2. Research that includes using tests, interviews, or observations, unless identifiable and pose risks 3. Collection or study of existing data or specimens as long as it has been deidentified (45 CFR 46) Expedited

Z-score

A ______ is a standardized unit that provides the relative position of any observation in the distribution and is also the number of standard deviations that the observed value lays away from the mean.

The _______________ is a federal agency within HHS whose mission is to make healthcare safer, higher quality, more accessible, equitable, and affordable, and to work within HHS and with other partners to make sure that the evidence is understood and used.

Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ)

_________ is when individual, comparative, or other multiple sources of data are compiled and analyzed to draw conclusions about a specific topic or area.

Aggregate data

ANOVA

An___________ is a test used to find and examine the differences in the determined averages (means) within and between data groups.

__________ are simple charts used to describe qualitative, categorical, or discrete variables such as nominal or ordinal data. the main goal is to succinctly provide clear and easy to understand data.

Bar charts

_________ visually summarize several main factors: median, range, and outliers. In this type of data presentation, the box represents quartiles, or quarters. The lines coming from the boxes (or quarters) are termed whiskers and illustrate the range of data values.

Box-and-whisker plots

The _______________ is a US government agency whose mission is to collaborate with the public to create the expertise, information, and tools people and communities need to protect their health, through health promotion, prevention of disease, injury, and disability, and preparedness for new health threats. It does this by confronting global diseases such as helping to combat the recent Ebola virus outbreak, tracking diseases (like influenza and foodborne outbreaks) to find out what is causing individuals to become ill, helping healthcare organizations, and cultivating public health.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

____________ are those characteristics other than the characteristic of interest that may also be related to the disease under study.

Confounding factors

_________________ include any numerical value that goes from one whole number to the next whole number. An example of it could be weight; if the athletes on a team weigh between 150 and 200 pounds, then each individual athlete's weight (150, 155, 160, and so forth).

Continuous variables

__________ are similar to descriptive studies except that the this study determines if a relationship may exist between two variables. The purpose of performing theses studies is to determine which variables are connected in some way. However, correlation does not equal causation.

Correlational studies

____________include research that is exploratory in nature and generates new hypotheses from the data collected

Descriptive studies

For healthcare, there are several important factors since experimental or clinical trials involve human participants. These factors are the following:

Eligibility of appropriate participants (inclusion and exclusion criteria) Randomization Ethical issues

___________ is a methodology where the researcher delves into a particular culture or organization in great detail in order to learn everything there is to know about them and to develop new hypotheses. It is not objective and includes opinions of the researcher.

Ethnography

True or False: In a normal distribution, the mean, median, and mode are not equal.

False

________________ is a research method that enables the researcher to develop a theory that is substantiated or confirmed by the data. It is a systematic method that can use multiple methods (both quantitative and qualitative findings) and pull it all together to develop a theory. Because it includes data collected through methods such as conversing with subjects on a specific topic, it is usually categorized under qualitative research, but it can also include quantitative information

Grounded theory

WHO's health-related focus areas include the following:

Health systems Noncommunicable diseases such as heart disease, cancer, stroke, diabetes, chronic lung disease, and mental health conditions Promoting health throughout the course of life to include environment and social determinants of health as well as gender, equity, and human rights Communicable diseases such as HIV, tuberculosis, and malaria Preparedness, surveillance, and response through emergencies that occur worldwide Corporate services that include all of WHO's tools, functions, and resources

The Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) describes the role of the ______________ as one that protects human subjects involved in research activities. It determines whether research conducted on human subjects is appropriate and protects the participants' rights. The major focus is not whether the research is appropriate for the organization or researcher to conduct, but that it contains all the appropriate protections for human subjects involved in the research

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

•Mean (average) •Median (the middlemost point) •Mode (most frequent value)

Measures of central tendency

______________examine the spread of different values around the measures of central tendency. They include the range, variance, and standard deviation.

Measures of variability

example of bar charts

One-Variable Bar Chart:•Easiest bar chart to build •Displays a bar to represent the amount of the specific category Two-Variable Bar Chart:•The two-variable bar chart can further distinguish or classify additional variables •This example includes both the number of healthcare facilities in the region and the number of trauma units in each of those settings Horizontal Bar Chart: •Used when label titles are long and therefore more difficult to read •Used when sorting the data from the smallest amount at the top to the largest amount at the bottom Stacked Bar Chart with Percentage of the Whole:•Used when demonstrating a comparison of the proportion of two things •This example demonstrates the proportion of the number of trauma units in relation to the number of healthcare facilities Horizontal Stacked Bar Chart: •Used when titles get longer •Used if data is shown from the smallest at the top to the largest at the bottom •Used when showing proportions of two areas

_________ are ranked variables in which numbers are assigned to rank a category in an ordered series, but the numbers do not indicate the magnitude of the difference between any two data points. An example of a ranked variable is a response for a question on a patient satisfaction questionnaire (1= not satisfied to 5= very satisfied)

Ordinal variables

A _________ is similar in appearance to a bar chart, but the highest-ranking value is listed as the first column, the next highest ranking is second, and so on, to the lowest ranking. Data is grouped into categories and then ranked according to its importance

Pareto chart

________ are simple graphs that use the slices of the pie to explain numerical proportion in relation to the whole, or 100 percent. These charts are used a great deal in healthcare because they can depict a breakdown of numerical data elements by percentages. Not used for comparisons

Pie charts

The Framingham Heart Study is an example

Prospective study

_______________designs involve collecting types of data that reflect a participant's perceptions, feelings, or attitudes about a certain subject. The methods used to collect this data can include observations, focus groups, case studies, informal conversational interviews, and in-depth interviews.

Qualitative research

____________ are categorical, meaning that the variable is from a specific category or group such as gender or age. They are given or assigned to items that are not numerical. An example is eye color. (brown = 1, green = 2, blue = 3)

Qualitative variables

Data can be organized so that the shape of a frequency distribution is revealed

Stem and Leaf Plots

According to the published report sponsored by the NIH Office of Behavioral and Social Science Research, mixed-methods research includes the following aspects:

Using research questions that focus on real-life, multilevel perspectives, across many cultures Using multiple methods (for example, intervention trials and in-depth interviews) Integrating these multiple methods or combining them to extract the strengths of each Focusing the research within philosophical and theoretical positions (Creswell et al. 2011)

The ____________ works to direct and coordinate authorities on international health through the United Nations. They provides data, publications, and funding support to researchers across the world

World Health Organization (WHO)

inferential statistics

___________ is the process of making deductions for a larger population based on the statistical results taken from a sample.

Identify an example of a value label variable. a. Coder status b. Coder test score c. Weight d. Height

a. Coder status

Comparing a healthcare organization's death rate to the death rates of similar healthcare organizations across the country uses ________ data. a. Comparative b. Individual c. Aggregate d. Big

a. Comparative

An HIM researcher would most likely be involved in _________ IRB research. a. Exempt b. Expedited c. Full board approval d. HIM does not do IRB research

a. Exempt

Identify the two graphs that are the best option for displaying frequency distributions using continuous data. a. Histogram and frequency polygon b. Bar chart and line graph c. Scatter chart and stem and leaf plot d. Pie chart and frequency polygon

a. Histogram and frequency polygon

Patients must be involved in the design of the research study if the researcher is to receive funding from which of the following organizations? a. PCORI b. CDC c. WHO d. AHA

a. PCORI

Identify the best graphical form to be used when examining a problem and a process. a. Pareto chart b. Pie chart c. Line graph d. Histogram

a. Pareto chart

The measure used in descriptive statistics that shows the value below which a given percentage of scores in a given group of scores fall is called a: a. Percentile b. Frequency distribution c. Standard deviation d. Median

a. Percentile

Identify an example of a ratio variable. a. 0 to 10 degrees Fahrenheit b. A height measurement of 5 feet 11 inches c. 1 = female d. 5 = strongly agree, 4 = agree, 3 = disagree

b. A height measurement of 5 feet 11 inches

Identify the best chart to compare three data variables (healthcare spending per person, country population, and gross domestic product) of the included countries. a. Bar chart b. Pie chart c. Bubble chart d. Scatter chart

c. Bubble chart

Identify which of the following organizations provides funding for research that is focused on patient engagement and is patient centered. a. CDC b. HHS c. PCORI d. WHO

c. PCORI

Individual data can be used to: a. Compare two groups b. Determine relationship between variables c. Provide patient care d. Group data together

c. Provide patient care

Identify which of the following measures is simple to compute and calculated by taking the difference between the highest and lowest values. a. Mean b. Median c. Range d. Standard deviation

c. Range

Why are descriptive statistics used? a. To illustrate the relationship between age and cause of pneumonia in patients admitted to a hospital from 2015 to 2020 b. To graph how often patients within a specific age range and gender are being readmitted due to a cardiac condition c. To illustrate the frequency of an element such as a hemoglobin rate below 12.0 in a group of patients d. To illustrate the relationship between cases of measles and pertussis before and after vaccination

c. To illustrate the frequency of an element such as a hemoglobin rate below 12.0 in a group of patients

Determining if data follow a normal distribution is important because certain statistics can be computed on data that are distributed normally. Which of the following is one type of these statistics? a. Mean b. Median c. Z-score d. Mode

c. Z-score

Determining if data follow a normal distribution is important because

certain statistics can be computed on data that is distributed normally.

When individual data is organized numerically and collated to evaluate against standards or benchmarks, it is described as _______________.

comparative data

A scatter plot is best used to illustrate: a. A frequency distribution b. Continuous data changes c. Numerical percentages d. A relationship between two variables

d. A relationship between two variables

The first step in information analysis is: a. Determining who the information will be presented to b. Determining the appropriate statistical test to use c. Using a team with members with different skill sets d. Determining the objective of the information

d. Determining the objective of the information

Identify which of the following is not a measure of central tendency. a. Mean b. Mode c. Percentile d. Z-score

d. Z-score

There are three major categories for IRB review and approval, and they include

exempt, expedited, and full board approval.

The ______________ design is the most powerful when trying to establish cause and effect. In healthcare, theses research studies can entail exposing participants to different interventions in order to compare the results of these interventions with the outcome.

experimental study

true or False: An analysis of variance statistical test would be used to summarize a data sample such as gender or reported job roles.

false

several federal government agencies such as the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) provide _________incentives for healthcare organizations that demonstrate high levels of quality, safety, and effectiveness of healthcare services.

financial

A _____________ is another graphical means to display a frequency distribution using continuous data in a line form. A single data point placed at the midpoint of the interval is used to mark the specific number of observations within that interval. differ from line graphs in that display the entire frequency distribution (counts) of the continuous variable; a line graph plots only the specific data points over time.

frequency polygon

A __________ is a graph that represents the frequency distribution of numerical data. A frequency distribution is a visual display of data that demonstrates where data falls. Used with continuous data. No spaces between the bars

histogram

The American Educational Research Association (AERA) has published a code of ethics that outlines the professional competence and responsibilities of researchers. The first principle is

professional competence, which includes researchers understanding their limits and striving to provide an excellent work product

A prospective study is defined as research that is designed to follow the study participants into the future to see if there is a relationship that develops for the study variables. If subjects cannot be correctly categorized into exposed and unexposed groups, the this design should not be used.

prospective study

Which areas in healthcare can be assessed by using data?

quality, safety, and healthcare outcomes such as the effectiveness of healthcare is prominent throughout healthcare organizations today.

Research results that are numerical in nature and can be illustrated with descriptive or inferential statistics are quantitative and would be a ____________. Types of theses studies include descriptive, correlational, retrospective, prospective, and experimental and quasi-experimental.

quantitative study

The ___________ is similar to the experimental study except that randomization of participants is not included. Also, the researcher may not manipulate the independent variable and there may be no control or comparison group. studies can be performed over time and may not include individual participants but whole healthcare systems

quasi-experimental study

When study participants are randomly chosen to be in the experimental, control, or comparison group using an indiscriminate method, so each participant has an equal chance of being selected for one of the groups, it is called _____________. It is important in effectively testing whether the specific intervention made a difference in the outcome of the disease.

randomization

The____________ is the simplest measure of variation to compute and is calculated by taking the difference between the highest and lowest values. Quick and easy to do, but not that useful since it only considers extremes and not the entire sample of data values

range

A ____________ is one in which the researcher is looking into the past for data; the data is historical and not currently obtained. In epidemiology, researchers conduct theses studies (also called case-control studies) by reviewing records and asking the subjects to recall past events in order to determine the presence or absence of the independent variable under study.

retrospective study

A __________, scatter plot, scatter diagram, or scatter graph is used to demonstrate a relationship between two variables. •One variable is plotted on the x-axis, and the other is plotted on the y-axis. Strong relationship between two variables is seen when the data comes closer to forming a straight line. When both variables increase and decrease at the same time, the chart will show a positive relationship. When one variable increases and the other variable decreases, the scatter chart will display a negative relationship. Main goal is to illustrate nonlinear relationships between variables.

scatter chart

The __________ is the measure of variability that is used most often and displays how data are related to the mean.

standard deviation

inferential statistics, there are several methods that can be used to present research judgments including

t-tests, chi-square tests, regression equations, and analysis of variance.

t-tests

•Used to determine if the averages (means) of two groups is statistically significant •Foundation element is the establishment of a null and alternative hypothesis •Null hypothesis is a statement that is expected to be found for the research •Alternative hypothesis is the opposite of the null