Chapter 17
Compare and contrast views on the effects of rural industry.
(pg 564. possible essay question)
Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot
Created a law that abolished French guilds, deciding they were outmoded and exclusionary institutions that obstructed technical innovation and progress and that they did not allow the common people to earn a living and exclude females.
What were the main causes of death in the 17th C? Why?
Famine, plague, and war
How did the Peace of Westphalia mark a turning point in European history?
Large scale armed conflicts over religious faith came to an end
Why did the Dutch failed to maintain their dominance in Asia?
The Dutch East India Company failed to diversify its trade to meet change in consumption patterns in Europe
Where did the new methods of the agricultural revolution originate?
The Netherlands
Why did the European population rise dramatically in the eighteenth century?
The basic cause of European population increase was a decline in mortality as well as a marginal increase in birth rates. Birthrates went up because: i. Children were profitable ii. No birth control iii. Social security (children take care of parents when they're too old to work) iv. Death rates for children are still high
Atlantic Slave Trade
The forced migration of Africans across the Atlantic for slave labor on plantations and in other industries; the trade reached its peak in the 18th C and ultimately involved more than 12 million Africans. This practice intensified with the growth of trade and demand for slave-produced goods like sugar and cotton. The plantations of Portuguese Brazil received the largest number of enslaved Africans-45% of the total.
What was a competitive advantage of the rural putting-out system?
The rulal poor worked for low wages
The conditions of serfs in Western Europe
Working class was better off in western Europe, where peasants were generally free from serfdom and sometimes owned land that they could pass on to their children.
How did colonial markets boost Europe's economic and social development, and what conflicts and adversity did world trade entail?
(possible essay question pg 569)
What three duties did Adam Smith propose the government limit itself to?
1. It should provide a defense against foreign invasion 2. It should maintain civil order with courts and police protection 3. It should sponsor certain indispensable public works and institutions that could never adequately profit private investors
The primary cause of the English glorious Revolution was
A fear of the establishment of Catholic absolutism by James II
Throughout the 16th and 17th centuries, armies affected population growth in all of the following ways except?
A large number of individuals were killed on the battlefield
Which of the following best describes the role of women in guilds in the 18th century?
Both legal and illegal work in the guilds became more accessible to women
Mercantilist theory postulated that
Economic activity should be regulated by and for the state
In return for financial support, what did Charles II of England secretly promise to Louis XIV of France?
English laws against Catholics would be eased and England gradually re-Catholicized
Why did European slave traders in Africa adopt the "shore method" of trading in the 18th century?
It permitted Europeans to move Easley along the coast, obtaining slaves at various slave markets and then departing quickly for the Americas
In the 18th century, the advocates for agricultural innovation argued that?
Landholdings and common lands needed to be consolidated and enclosed in order to farm more efficiently
How did the Peace of Utrecht resolve the problem of succession to the Spanish throne?
Louis XIV of France's grandson, Philip, was placed on the French throne with the agreement that the French and Spanish would never be united
What was the effect of rural industry on the guild system?
One consequence of the growth of rural industry was an undermining of the traditional guild system that protected urban artisans.
Which of the following best characterizes the condition of the peasant in western Europe in the 18th century
Peasants were generally free from serfdom and owned land that they could pass on to their children
The industrious revolution was a result of
Poor families choosing to reduce leisure time and the production of goods for household consumption in order to earn wages to buy consumer goods
Creole
Refereed to people of Spanish ancestry who were born in the Americas
The spinning of thread for the loom
Required the work of several spinners for each loom, which lef merchants to employ the wives and daughters of agricultural workers at terribly low wages
The concept of the reading revolution refers to the
Shift from reading religious texts out loud as a family to reading diverse texts individually
Which book by the Baron de Montesquieu is considered the first major work in the French enlightenment?
The Persian Letter
Between 1650 and 1760, what crucial component of the global economy was established when nations developed?
The atlantic economy
The british won the American component of the seven years war because ?
The diverted men and money from Europe to the american theater
Which of the following correctly characterizes the transformation of english and Scottish country side in the enclosure era?
The elimination of common rights and access to land turned small peasant farmers into landowning wage earners
Which of the following best describes the open-field system of the middle ages?
The land was divided into long, narrow strips that were not enclosed by fences or hedges
Which of the following describes the enclosure movement of the 18th century?
The land was divided into plots bounded by fences to farm more efficiently
Crop-Rotation
The process of rotating crops through fields and allowing one or two fields to lay fallow so that they can regain nutrients.
Enclosure
The system of dividing up land rather than having communal fields. This movement meant a revolution in village life and organization, but it appeared to be the necessary price of technical progress. Began as early as the 16th century, when parliament imposed the system on England.
The Three Year System
To deal with the problems of field exhaustion, peasants staggered the rotation of crops every three years to make production more even
Who was allowed to become a member in a guild?
While women were occasionally admitted to guilds, the majority of guilds only admitted local men who were good Christians, had several years of work experience, paid stiff membership fees, and completed a masterpiece. They also favored family connections. Masters' sons enjoyed automatic access to their fathers' guilds, while outsiders were often barred from entering.
Proletarianization
the transformation of large numbers of small peasant farmers into landless rural wage earners. By the early nineteenth century a minority of wealthy landowners held most of the land in England and leased their holdings to middle-size farmers, who relied on landless laborers for their workforce; not only was the small landholder deprived of his land, but the large farms required fewer laborers, which led to widespread unemployment.
What were guilds, and why did they become controversial in the eighteenth century?
(possible essay question pg 566)
Which of the following characterizes the regions to which slaves were carried from Africa to the Americas?
About 90% of slaves were transported to Brazil or the Caribbean, with only 3% brought to North America
What changes in organization did intensification of 18th C slave trade result in?
After 1700, Britain became the undisputed leader in shipping slaves across the Atlantic, European governments and ship captains cut back on fighting among themselves and concentrated on commerce. Some African merchants and rulers who controlled exports profited from the greater demand for slaves, often gaining access to European and colonial goods as well as firearms with their new found wealth.
The Faubourg Saint-Antoine
An eastern suburb of Paris that maintained freedom from guild privileges through an old legal loophole, acting as a haven for the "false-workers" bitterly denounced by masters.
How did enlightenment thinkers differ from those of the middle ages and renaissance?
Enlightenment thinkers believed that their era had surpassed antiquity, which demonstrated the possibility of human progress
How did William Laud, the archbishop of Canterbury, create conflict in Britain in the 1630s?
He sought to impose a new prayerbook modeled on the Anglican book of common prayer on Presbyterian Scotland
The conditions of serfs in Eastern Europe
In eastern Europe, the percentage of the population drawing their livelihood from agriculture was significantly higher than others. As such, serfdom was even more common than ever and working conditions remained dismal. As the base of an entire economy, serfs were heavily burdened.
William Pitt
Leader of the British armies in the battle of the Seven Years' War in North America
Marquis de Montcalm
Leader of the French and Canadian armies in the battle of the Seven Years' War in North America
Effects of improvements in farming
More productive farming led to a surplus of food, surplus of food led to less demand for agricultural workers, less demand for agricultural workers led to the opportunity for ecconomic and urban growth
In africa, the slave trade primarily resulted in?
More wars and likely fewer people
Population growth in Europe in the 18th century?
Occurred in all regions
A striking feature of the salons was that
Philosophers, nobles, and members of the upper-middle-class intermingled
How did Spain fare in colonial trade in the 18th C?
Spain gained Louisiana from France in 1763. Also Spanish influence expanded westward all the way to northern California through the efforts of Spanish missionaries and ranchers. Its mercantilist goals were boosted by a recovery in silver production.
Which countries benefited the most from colonial development and world trade?
The Netherlands, France, and above all Great Britain. Great Britain thus became the leading maritime power but they competed ruthlessly wit France and the Netherlands for trade and territory.
With the development of spanish colonial society, by the 18th century?
The colonial elite came to believe that their circumstances gave them different interests and characteristics from those in spain
How did the problem of food shortages change in the 18th century?
The considerable road and canal building of the 18th century permitted food to be more easily transported to regions with local family crop failure
What did English Parliament do during the revolution and how did it affect peasants?
The eighteenth century enclosure movement. It led to an uneven distribution of land in favor of the nobles because they ruled in their own interest. As such, nobles became wealthier land lords while peasants lost land and were forced to work for the nobles at meager wages.
Which of the following correctly characterizes the transformation of the English and Scottish countryside in the enclosure era?
The elimination of common rights and access to land turned small peasant farmers into landless wage earners
The leadership of the dutch people in farming methodology can be attributed primarily to?
The necessity to provide for a densely populated country
What was the main set back for agriculture in the Middle Ages?
The pattern of farming in the Middle Ages sustained fairly large numbers of people, but did not produce material abundance
At the center of Adam Smith's arguments in the wealth of Nations was the belief that
The pursuit of self interest in competitive markets would improve the living conditions of citizens
At the center of Adam smith's arguments in the "wealth of nations" was the belief that?
The pursuit of self-interest in competitive markets would improve living conditions of citizens
Catherine the great's goal of domestic reform never came into fruition, owing to
The rebellion led by Emelian Pugachev in1773
Which of the following characterizes the English Revolution of 1688?
The revolution did not constitute a democratic revolution since sovereignty was placed in the Parliament, which only represented the upper classes
Industrious revolution
The shift that occurred as families in northwestern Europe focused on earning wages instead of producing goods for household consumption; this reduced their economic self-sufficiency but increased their ability to purchase consumer goods. This occurred as Europe reduced leisure time, stepped up the pace of work, and directed the labor of women and children away from production of goods for house consumption and toward wage work.
Putting-out system
The system in which a merchant loaned, or "put out," raw materials to cottage workers, who processed the raw materials in their own homes and returned the finished products to the merchant. Variations on this basic relationship included workers buying their own raw materials, whole families participating in domestic industry, or several workers banding together to perform a complicated process in a workshop outside the home. As industries grew in scale and complexity, production was often broken into stages. The system grew because it was not restricted by rigid guild standards and because underemployed labor was abundant, with poor peasants and landless laborers willing to work for low wages.
How successful were the European peasants' attempt of revolt in protest of the land laws?
When the small landholders and the village poor could effectively oppose the enclosure of the open fields and the common lands, they did so. However, the option of peasant revolt was a poor one because the social and political conditions that sustained the ruling elites were ancient and deeply rooted, and powerful forces stood ready to crush protest. So not very successful
The War of the Spanish Succession
(1701-1713)As the Netherlands began to fall behind in international trade, France stood as England's most serious rival in the competition for overseas empire. This war started in 1701 when Louis XIV accepted the Spanish crown willed to his grandson Phillip. This upset the continental balance of power. This union with France and Spain also threatened to encircle and destroy the British colonies in North America. This was the first of a series of wars to decide who would become the leading maritime and colonial power. During this first conflict, Louis XIV was defeated by a coalition of states and was forced in the Peace of Utrecht (1713) to cede France's northernmost American holdings to Britain. Spain was compelled to give Britain control of its West African slave trade (asiento) and to let Britain send one ship of merchandise into the Spanish colonies annually.
Adam Smith
(1723-1790) A professor of philosophy and a leading figure of the Scottish Enlightenment. Developed the general idea of freedom of enterprise and established the basis for modern economics in his work, "Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations" (1776). Criticized monopolies and privileged companies for their restrictions. Preferred free competition. Proposed that the government should limit itself to only three duties: defense, order, and sponsoring the public. Supported economic liberalism and stated that there is the law of supply and demand. Capitalism.
The War of the Austrian Succession
(1740-1748) Started when Frederick the Great seized Silesia from Austria's Maria Theresa. Included Anglo-French conflicts in India and North America, but it ended with no change in the territorial situation in North America. This war helped set the stage for the Seven Years' War. English had been smuggling into Spain; Spain sets up a coast guard to protect from this; English become very upset with this interference. If a ship was caught, goods and ships were confiscated and the captain would have his ear cut off. A captain named Jenkins testifies before parliament and drops his ear in 1739. Starts a war known as "the war of Jenkins ear" which merged into the war of the Austrian succession. Pretty much a stand off.
How did the problem of food shortages change in the 18th century?
Increased Road and canal building permitted food to be more easily transported to regions with local crop failure and famine
The Seven Years' War
(1756-1763) This war was the decisive round in the Franco-British competition for colonial empire. Austria's Maria Theresa sought to win back Silesia and crush Prussia, thereby restablishing the Habsburg's leadership in German affairs. The battle was inconclusive in Europe and the fate of the battle to North America to be decided. Allied with many Native American tribes, the French built more forts in 1753 in what is now western Pennsylvania to protect their claims on fur-trading regions. A Virginia force attacked a small group of French soldiers and then the war to conquer Canada was on. French and Canadian forces under the experienced marquis de Montcalm fought well and scored major victories against the British and colonists until 1758. Beginning in 1758, Britain, led by William Pitt, used its superior sea power to destroy the French fleet and choke off French commerce around the world; a four-month siege of Quebec in 1759 by British naval and land forces sealed Britain's victory.
"Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of Wealth of Nations"
(1776) Criticized monopolies and privileged companies for their restrictions. Preferred free competition. Proposed that the government should limit itself to only three duties: defense, order, and sponsoring the public. Supported economic liberalism and states that there is the law of supply and demand. Capitalism. Written by Adam Smith
Why was the role of women in the Industrious Revolution controversial?
(pg 566) When women entered the labor market, they almost always worked at menial, tedious jobs for very low wages. Yet it seems that women who earned their own wages also took a greater role in household decision making. Women's use of their occasional surplus income helped spur the rapid growth of the textile industries.
What did Colbert attempt to do for the guilds and why?
Jean-Baptiste Colbert, the French finance minister under Louis XIV, revived the urban guilds and used them to encourage high-quality production and to collect taxes. Guild masters in Paris received exclusive rights to produce and sell certain goods, access to raw materials, and the rights to train apprentices and open shops. Guilds also served social and religious functions, providing a locus of sociability and group identity to the middling classes.
What was the status of jews in european colonies in the 18th century?
Jews faces numerous political and economic forms of discrimination but were considered to be white europeans and thus couldnt be enslaved
Describe the treatment of Jews in the New World
Jews were eager participants in the new Atlantic economy and established a network of mercantile communities along its trade route. Jews in European colonies faced discrimination. They were considered to be white Europeans and thus ineligible to be slaves, but they sis not enjoy equal status with Christians
The glorious Revolution and the concepts of representative government found it's best defense in the Second Treatise of Civil Government by
John Locke
What caused a decrease in mortality?
1. One of the primary reasons for this was a mysterious disappearance of the bubonic plague 2. Improvements in the water supply and sewage resulted in somewhat better public health and helped reduce diseases in some urban areas of western Europe 3. People also became more successful in their efforts to safeguard the supply of food 4. Advances in transportation lessened the impact of local crop failure and famine 5. Emergency supplies could be brought in and localized starvation became less frequent 6. Wars became less destructive than in the 17th C and spread fewer epidemics 7. Nutritious new foods from the New Worlds were introduced 8. Simply put: Famines, epidemics, ad wars continued to occur and to affect population growth, but their severity moderated
What new identities and communities emerged in the 18th C?
1. Over time the colonial elite came to feel that their circumstances gave them different interests and characteristics from those of their home population. 2. Creole traders and planters increasingly resented the regulation and taxes imposed by colonial bureaucrats. 3. Since most European migrants were men, much of the population of the Atlantic world descended from unions-forced or through choice-of European men and indigenous or African women. 4. Colonial attempts to classify and systematize racial categories greatly influenced developing Enlightenment thought on racial difference. 5. Mixed-race populations sometimes rose to the colonial elite. 6. Free people of color established their own proud social hierarchies based on wealth, family connections, occupation, and skin color. 7. Religions such as Christianity took on a distinctive character
Which of the following best characterizes the regions to which slaves were carried from Africa to the Americas?
About ninety percent of slaves were transported to Brazil or the carribean with only three percent brought to North america
How were mixed race relationships viewed in the British colonies of the Caribbean and the southern mainland?
Masters tended to leave their mixed-race progeny in slavery, maintaining a stark discrepancy between free whites and enslaved people of color. British colonial law forbade marriage between English men and women and Africans or Native Americans.
Which of the following characterizes 18th century colonial trade in Europe?
Britain's mercantilist system achieved remarkable success as trade with its colonies grew substantially
What was the result of the agricultural revolution in England?
By 1870 English farmers were producing 300 percent more food than they had produced in 1700, even though the number of people working the land had increased by only 14%. This provided food for England's rapidly growing urban population.
By the 18 century, the lead of Spanish colonial society
Came to believe that their circumstances gave them different interests and characteristics from those in Spain
Describe British settlment in Australia
Captain James Cook claimed the east coast of Australia for England in 1770, naming it New South Wales. The first colony was established there in the late 1780's, relying on the labor of convicted prisoners forcibly transported from Britain. Settlement of the western portion of the continent followed in the 1790's. Settlement soon aroused hostility from the aboriginal peoples.
What problems could commonly occur before the agricultural revolution?
Climactic conditions produced poor or disastrous harvests every eight or nine years, unbalanced and inadequate food in famine years made people extremely susceptible to illness, eating material unfit for human consumption during times of crop failure, such as bark or grass, resulted in intestinal ailments of many kinds, influenza and smallpox preyed on populations weakened by malnutrition.
Describe Religion and conversion efforts in North America
Converting indigenous people to Christianity was a key ambition for all European powers in the New World. Conversion efforts in North America were less effective due to the scattered nature of settlement and the lesser integration of native people into the colonial community. Protestants were less active as missionaries although some dissenters, like Quakers and Methodists, did seek converts among native people. Slavery presented a limitation to conversion however, as some slave owners would not baptize their slaves fearing that baptism would give them more rights. Elements of African religion and practice often in endured, especially in the Caribbean. It even was often incorporated with Christian traditions. Jews did not share equal status with Christians, even though they were considered white Europeans.
Well the Spanish Landowners kept indigenous workers on their estates through a system of
Debt peonage in which landowners advanced food, shelter, and some money, in this way keeping the workers in perpetual debt
Use of nitrogen-storing crops
Discovery of nitrogen producing crops creates as use for fallow fields [crops like clover which provides excellent food for livestock; manure helps make the fields fertile again] Their use was pioneered by the dutch.
Navigation Acts
Established first by Oliver Cromwell; required that goods imported from Europe be carried on British-owned ships or on ships of the exporting country. These laws gave British merchants and ship owners a virtual monopoly on trade with British colonies. Were a form of economic warfare that initially targeted the Dutch, who were far ahead of the English in shipping and foreign trade. Eventually the Dutch began to fall behind, leaving France as England's main competitor.
Fallow
Fields left uncultivated to cope with soil-exhaustion. Greatly inhibited efficient production and lead to even greater burdens on the peasants.
The Dutch East India Company
Formed in 1602, it took control of Portuguese spice trade, eliminating Portugal from the the race for spices. Batavia (Jakarta) was its main port in the Indian Ocean. While the Portuguese had treated the Indian states and people as business partners, the Dutch established outright control and reduced them to dependents. The Dutch's hold in Asia faltered in the 18th C due to the company's failure to diversify to meet changing consumption patterns. Spices continued to compose much of the Dutch's shipping. Fierce competition from the English East India Company also severely undercut the Dutch.
The english navigation acts mandated that all english imports and exports be transported on english ships, and that also?
Gave british merchants a virtual monopoly on trade with british colonists
Reasons for Dutch leadership in farming?
Holland was densely populated, and in order to feed themselves the Dutch sought maximum yields from their land and strove to increase the cultivated area through the steady draining of marshes and swamps. Stimulated by commerce and overseas trade, the growing urban population provided Dutch peasants with markets for all they could produce and allowed each region to specialize.
Describe 18th century colonial trade for Britain
In the 18th C, London grew into the West's largest and richest city. The mainland colonies provided and expanding market for English manufactured goods. English exports of manufactured goods to the Atlantic economy came to the rescue. To America and Africa went a large quantity of metal items. Thus, the mercantilist system achieved remarkable success for England in the 18th C and by the 1770's England stood on the thresh hold of the Industrial Revolution.
How did England benefit from the Dutch involvement in the agricultural revolution?
In the first half of the seventeenth century the English invited Dutch experts to drain the extensive marshes, or fens, of wet and rainy England; their efforts converted swampy wilderness into thousands of acres of productive land. Charles Townshend: English ambassador to the Netherlands; very impressed by Dutch farming techniques. Came back to England and began to use these new techniques on his land. When his land began producing greater profits, people started to pay attention.
What backlash occurred as a result of black prosperity?
In the second half of the eighteenth century, the prosperity of some free people of color brought a backlash from the white population of Saint-Domingue in the form of new race laws prohibiting nonwhites from marrying whites and forcing them to adopt distinctive attire.
The idea of the industrious revolution is best understood as a result of?
Poor families choosing to reduce leisure time and the production of goods for household consumption in order to earn wages to be used to buy consumer goods
How and why did rural industry intensify in the eighteenth century?
Population growth meant that the poor in the countryside increasingly needed to supplement their agricultural earnings with other types of work. Rural industry provided employment for laid off workers (victims of Proletarianization) thus allowing for the rapid expansion in England .Most continental countries developed rural industry more slowly.
Which powers participated in the partial name of Poland in the late 18th century?
Prussia, Russia, and Austria
The spinning of thread for the loom?
Required the work of several spinners for each loom,which led merchants to employ the wives and daughters of agricultural workers at low terrible wages
Open-Field System
land isn't organized for efficiency but rather fair distribution; primary crop is grain, but grain pulls nutrients [primarily nitrogen] out of the fields. As such, crops had to be rotated so that one field would be left uncultivated, or fallow; this left a significant portion of land uncultivated and thus unproductive. Also, peasants were extremely heavily taxed.
The British East India Company and the conquering of India
The British originally struggled for a foothold in Asia with the Dutch monopolizing the Indian Ocean, causing the British to return to India, a source of trade in silks, textiles, and pepper. Throughout the 17th C, the British relied on trade concessions from the Mughal emperor, but when the Mughals conceded world-wide trading privileges in 1716, the British increasingly intervened in local affairs and made alliances or even waged war against Indian princes. Britain's great rival for India was France. Their rivalry was resolved with the Treaty of Paris which granted all France's possessions in India to the British with the exception of Pondicherry, an Indian Port city.With the elimination of France, British trading power increased. In 1764 company forces defeated the Mughal emperor. Robert Clive became the first British governor general of Bengal with direct authority over any province. By about 1805 the British had overcome Indian resistance to gain economic and political dominance of much of the subcontinent and India was named the jewel of the British Empire in the 19th C.
Why did the dutch fail to maintain their dominance in Asia?
The dutch east india company failed to diversify its trade to meet changing consumption patterns in Europe
guild system
The organization of artisanal production into trade-based associations, or guilds, each of which received a monopoly over its trade and the right to train apprentices and hire workers. Reached its peak in most of Europe in the 17th and 18th C. The second half of the 18th C, critics attacked the systems as outmoded institutions that obstructed technical progress and innovation.
From a merchant capitalist's point of view, what was the problem with rural labor?
The problem was not low wages but the control of rural labor. Cotton workers were difficult to supervise They accused workers-especially female spinners- of laziness, drunkenness, and immorality. If workers failed to produce enough thread, it must be because their wages their wages were too high and they had little incentive to work. Merchants then insisted on maintaining the lowest possible wages to force the "idle" poor into productive labor
What were the two major historical developments that came from the enclosure movement in England?
The rise of a market-oriented estate agriculture and the emergence of a landless rural proletariat.
The rural putting-out system had all of the following competitive advantages except?
The workers had to purchase the raw material themselves, saving the merchant capital expenses
What was the primary goal of Galileo Galilei's experimental method?
To discover what actually occurred in nature rather than to speculate on what should occur
What causes population growth and an increase in birth rates?
Women had more babies than before because new opportunities for employment in rural industry allowed them to marry at an earlier age. The basic cause of European population increase as a whole was a decrease in death rates. 1.) One of the primary reasons for this was a mysterious disappearance of the bubonic plague. 2.) Improvements in the water supply and sewage resulted in somewhat better public health and helped reduce diseases in some urban areas of western Europe. 3.) People also became more successful in their efforts to safeguard the supply of food. 4.) Advances in transportation lessened the impact of local crop failure and famine Emergency supplies could be brought in and localized starvation became less frequent. 5.) Wars became less destructive than in the 17th C and spread fewer epidemics. 6.) Nutritious new foods from the New Worlds were introduced. 7.) Simply put: Famines, epidemics, ad wars continued to occur and to affect population growth, but their severity moderated
Jethro Tull
(1674-1741) An important English innovator who tried to develop better farming methods through empirical research, such as using horses rather than oxen for plowing and sowing seed with drilling equipment for even distribution at the proper depth. Not the greatest innovator but did contribute to the spread of these new ideas. (editor of an agricultural journal)
1763 Treaty of Paris
(1763) In this treaty, which brought an end to Franco-British competition, France lost its remaining possessions on mainland North America (Canada and all land East of Mississippi River) as well as most of its holdings in India. Britain then realized its goal of monopolizing a vast trading and colonial empire.
What important developments led to the agricultural revolution, and how did these changes affect peasants?
(possible essay question)
Robert Clive
A British East India Company agent who had led its forces in battle. Became the first British governor general of Bengal, northeast India, with direct authority over the province.
Economic liberalism
A belief in free trade and competition based on Adam Smith's argument that the invisible hand of free competition would benefit all individuals, rich and poor
Soil-Exhaustion
A big problem from everyone plowing and using the same land year after year
Debt Peonage
A form of serfdom that allowed a planter or rancher to keep his workers or slaves in perpetual debt bondage by periodically advancing food, shelter, and a little money. Developed by Spanish landowners.
The Agricultural Revolution
A term encompassing a number of improvements in farming. Technological progress offered a different way for peasants to improve their position. Improvements in farming had multiple effects: new crops made ideal feed for animals, which allowed peasants to build up their herds of cattle and sheep, which in turn meant more meat and better diets, as well as more manure for fertilizer and therefore more grain for bread and porridge. Advocates of the new crop rotations argued that innovating agriculturalists needed to enclose and consolidate their scattered holdings into compact, fenced-in fields in order to farm more effectively. Encompasses the movement known as enclosure. Landlords imposed newer farming techniques in order to increase productivity.
Olaudah Equiano
An eloquent spokesman for the mixing of African and European cultures. Came to the Americas as a slave and became a free man.
Peace of Utrecht
Ended the War of the Spanish Succession. Louis XIV was defeated by a coalition of states and was forced in the ________ to cede France's northernmost American holdings to Britain. Spain was compelled to give Britain control of its West African slave trade (asiento) and to let Britain send one ship of merchandise into the Spanish colonies annually.
Cardinal Jules Mazarin's struggle to increase royal revenues to meet the cost of war led to uprisings of 1648 to 1653, known as the
Fronde
Which of the following correctly characterize 18th century colonial trade in europe?
In england, the mercantilist system achieved remarkable success as british trade with its colonies grew substantially
France's strong economy was created by the mercantilist policies of
Jean-Baptiste Colbert
In music, the Baroque style reached its culmination in the work of
Johann Sebastian Bach
Oliver Cromwell's Protectorate was ultimately a
Military dictatorship
According to recent scholarship, during the 18th century guild system?
Remained flexible as masters adopted new technologies and circumvented impractical rules
The englishman jethro tull?
Sought to critically analyze farming methods and develop better methods about farming through empirical research
What market employed the most workers in Europe up to the 19th C?
Textiles
What helped to justify the growth of slavery in the 18th century?
The emergence of scientific racism
From 1701 to 1763, what was at stake in the wars between Great Britain and France?
The position as Europe's leading maritime power, with the ability to claim profits from Europe's overseas expansion
From 1701-17-63,what was at stake in the warfare between great Britain and france?
The position as european leading maritime power with the ability to claim profits from Europe's overseas expansion
Within the family, the operation of the loom?
Was considered a man's job reserved for the male head of the household
The English navigation acts mandated that all English imports and exports be transported on English ships, and they also
gave British merchants a virtual monopoly on trade with British colonies
Mercantilism
Aimed particularly at creating a favorable balance of foreign trade in order to increase a country's stick of gold. A country's gold holdings served as an all-important treasure chest that could be opened periodically to pay for war in a violent age.
The war of the Austrian succession could best be described as?
An inconclusive standoff that set the stage for further warfare
What was the result of the war of the Austrian succession?
An inconclusive standoff that set the stage for further warfare
the flying shuttle
An invention that allowed weavers to weave faster; they started to run out of thread faster, this lead to the employment of spinsters (usually widowed/old women)
Physiocrats
Anti-guild group; followed Adam Smith; criticized guilds, or "corporations," for their restrictions, a critique he extended to all state-approved monopolies and privileged companies.
Who provided the labor force for britians initial colonization of Australia
Convicted prisoners
How did the idea of race transform Europeans idea of their superiority over other peoples?
European superiority was increasingly defined as biologically superior as well as culturally superior
How did Frederick William the Great Elector of Prussia persuade the junker nobility to except taxation without consent in order to fund the army?
He confirmed the junkers privileges, including their authority over the serfs
How did Cardinal Richelieu increase the power of the centralized French state?
He extended the use of intendants, commissioners for each of France's 32 districts
In his essay concerning human understanding, John Locke claimed that
Human development is determined by education and society
In the 18th century, advocates for agricultural innovation argued that
Land holdings and common clans needed to be consolidated and enclosed in order to farm more efficiently
Free Competition
Protected consumers from unfair prices or terms and gave everyone equal right to sell
In the 18th century, the biggest increase in british foreign trade was with?
The british colonial empire
John Kay
The inventor of the flying shuttle
What was the core concept of the enlightenment?
The methods of natural science should be used to examine all aspects of life
Why did european salve traders in africa adopt the "shore method" of trading in the 18th century?
The shore method permitted europeans to move easily along the coast, obtaining slaves at various slave markets and then departing quickly for the Americas
Merchant capitalists complained bitterly about?
Their inability to directly supervise and direct the work of rural laborers
How did governments respond to the new science?
They established academics of science to support and sometimes direct scientific research
How did the French fare during the 18th C in colonial trade?
Thought France lost much to the English, they still profited from the colonies of Saint-Domingue and Martinique and Guadalupe. They provided immense fortunes in plantation agriculture and slave trading during the second half of the 18th C. Saint-Domingue became the world's leading producer of coffee and sugar and the most profitable plantation colony in the New World.
Christianity in colonial societies in the Americas?
Took on distinctive characteristics through a complex process of cultural exchange that made christianity more comprehensive to indigenous peoples
Christianity and colonial societies in the Americas
Took on distinctive characteristics through a complex process of cultural exchange that made it Christianity more comprehensible to indigenous peoples
What was the European view of the slave trade in the 18th C?
Until the early part of the 18th C, Europe considered the slave trade a legitimate business. But as details of the plight of slaves became know, a campaign to abolish slavery developed in Britain. In 1807 Parliament abolished the British slave trade, although slavery continues in British colonies and the Americas for decades.
Joseph II's conversion of peasant labor obligations to cash payment
Was opposed by both nobles and peasants
Among the laboring classes, guild masters?
Were a small minority of the population who jealously regarded their membership
Voltaire was a deist who viewed God as a kin to a
clockmaker who set the universe and motion and then ceased to intervene in human affairs
Cottage industry
consisted of manufacturing with hand tools in peasant cottages and work sheds, grew to become a crucial feature of the European economy. Was often organized through the putting-out system. Paid by the piece; textiles are the main thing manufactured.
