Chapter 17 Short Answer
What was the relationship between the scientific revolution and the enlightenment?
-The scientific revolution was the emergence of modern science during the early modern period, when developments in mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology (including human anatomy), and chemistry transformed societal views about nature. -The change to the medieval idea of science occurred for four reasons: collaboration, the derivation of new experimental methods, the ability to build on the legacy of existing scientific philosophy, and institutions that enabled academic publishing. -Under the scientific method, which was defined and applied in the 17th century, natural and artificial circumstances were abandoned and a research tradition of systematic experimentation was slowly accepted throughout the scientific community. -During the scientific revolution, changing perceptions about the role of the scientist in respect to nature, and the value of experimental or observed evidence, led to a scientific methodology in which empiricism played a large, but not absolute, role. -As the scientific revolution was not marked by any single change, many new ideas contributed. Some of them were revolutions in their own fields. -Science came to play a leading role in Enlightenment discourse and thought. Many Enlightenment writers and thinkers had backgrounds in the sciences, and associated scientific advancement with the overthrow of religion and traditional authority in favor of the development of free speech and thought.
Who were the leading figures of the Enlightenment and what were their main contributions?
Montesquieu His first work was called the Persian Letters. He wrote these papers in the format of two Persians supposedly were traveling to Western Europe. They would send back how the French institution and Catholic Church was run. Most of the French Enlightenment is an attack on how the tradition religion, slavery, and how to liberate human beings from their prejudices. Montesquieu's attempt was to combine the scientific method with the social and political arena and make a "natural Law". He believed in the three kinds of government monarchy, republics, and despotism. He believed that having the executive, legislative, and judicial powers was the best way to give freedom to the state. This is how the American philosophers had found the way for the US constitution. Voltaire Voltaire studied law but wanted to be a writer and he did this through play writing. He had become the successor to Racine for the tragedies he had written. However, from a quarrel with some nobleman made him have to leave France for almost two years. He loved the English life. He liked the freedom of the press, political freedom, and religious situation. He believed that if there were two religions they would always fight because there's two, but if there are many they will live in peace. Voltaire criticized the monarchy of the middle-class people. When Voltaire returned to France his Philosophic letters were banned by the states which exiled Voltaire. He lived with his Mistress, she had adopted the views of Issac Newton. Both Voltaire and his Mistress had collaborated and wrote a book about the natural philosophy of Newton. Voltaire was mostly known for his criticism of traditional religion. Voltaire believed in deism, which is a religious outlook on philosophies. God created the world but did not run it. Diderot Diderot became a freelance writer so he could focus on many subjects and he could learn to read many languages. He was very curious about Christianity, which he thought was condemned as fanatical and unreasonable. Diderot's contribution to the Enlightenment was the twenty-eight volume Encyclopedia he called the great work of his life. This encyclopedia was supposed to change the way of thinking. They were used in the philosophies' against the old French society. They would attack religious superstition. They wanted to make a program for society, legal, and political improvements to make the society more tolerant and useful. This Encyclopedia is now for doctors, clergy, teachers, lawyers, and military officers. Rousseau Growing up he was an orphan who was self taught for the longest time until he had enough money to go to school to study music and the classics. He made his way to Paris where he was entered into the philosophes circles. He had a major work called Discourse on the Origins of the Inequality of Mankind and it was about the primitive condition before laws and judges and people were happy and equal. He explained where it went wrong. It was when people wanted to protect their private property. That is when laws and governors became a thing in society. He believed government was evil but a government was needed. He wrote a treaty called The Social Contract, it was how to bring together both individual liberty and governmental authority. It was a plan for the society to be governed by its general will. Liberty should follow what is best for the people of the society. He thought the best for people was what was best for an individual. He also believed that education should be based on a natural instinct of a child and they should be restricted in the classroom. He preached all of this however did not follow it. He sent his children to foundling homes and believed that women were less than men. But he still made the talk about gender importance a topic in the enlightenment.
What innovations in art, music, and literature occurred in the 18th century? How did popular culture differ from high culture in the 18th century? (10 points)
One innovation in art that occurred in the 18th century was the creation of the new style, Rococo. Rococo was a new style that emerged following the death of Louis XIV in 1715. This style of art rejected strict geometrical patterns and had a fondness for curves. Another innovation in art was neoclassicism. Although neoclassicism emerged in France as an established movement, it continued to maintain a strong appeal. Artists of this style wanted to recapture the dignity and simplicity of the classical style of ancient Greece and Rome. One innovation in music was the rise of the opera and oratorio, the sonata, the concerto, and the symphony. Even though the Italians were the first to develop these genres, the Germans, Austrians, and English soon followed. Many composers such as, Bach, Handel, Haydn, and Mozart all contributed to the development of music. For example, Johann Sebastian Bach and George Frederick Handel were both seen as musical geniuses. In Bach's mind, music was above all means to worship God and he said that his task in life was to make, "well-ordered music in the honor of God." Then, Handel was mostly known for his religious music. For example, his musical work, Messiah, has been called "one of those rare works that appeal immediately to everyone, and yet is indisputably a masterpiece of the highest order." Lastly, the two music composers, Haydn and Mozart, represented the new musical period known as the classical era. During both of their lives, Mozart and Haydn were prolific composers and wrote many different genres of music. Another category that had innovations in the 18th century was literature. One innovation in literature was the development of the novel. Even though the novel was not a new literary genre, it grew from the medieval romances and the picaresque stories of the 16th century. One person who contributed to the development of the novel was Samuel Richardson. Samuel did not start writing until he was in his 50's. One of his novels, Pamela: or, Virtue Rewarded, was about the story of a servant girl's resistance to many seduction attempts by her master. With this novel, Samuel received a large audience because of his appeal to the growing cult of sensibility in the 18th century. Another innovation in literature in the 18th century was the writing of history. Philosophes were the people who were responsible for starting the writing of history. With this, the philosophes eliminated the role of God, they allowed themselves to focus on events, and search for causal relationships in the natural world. They also widened the view of history from the humanists' preoccupation with politics since it, along with economic, social intellectual, and cultural developments, still dominated the work of the Enlightenment. Lastly, in the 18th century, historians and cultural anthropologists grew accustomed to distinguishing between high culture and popular culture. High culture is referred to as the literary and artistic world of the educated and wealthy ruling classes, whereas popular culture refers to the written and unwritten lore of the masses, which was passed down through telling stories. During the 18th century, there was an expansion of the reading public and publishing. For example, French philosophers were issuing about 1,600 titles yearly in the 1780's, which was an increase from 300 titles in 1750. Many of these titles were directed to the new reading of the middle classes, which included urban artisans and women.
What role did women play in that environment?
The role women played in that environment was by helping with hosting salons as a way for them to take part in debating and giving their input on a widespread amount of issues. The salons promoted conversation and sociability between upper-class men and women as well as spreading the ideas of the Enlightenment. One well known women who owned a salon and offered financial assistances was Marie-Therese de Geoffrin.
How did popular religion differ from institutional religion in the 18th century?
The institutional church was based around the conservative institutions that would be for the upper classes. The priest and pastor would be the center of the religion. They would keep records of births, deaths, and marriages, provided for the poor, and would have an education for orphans. In the popular religion it was more of what the people thought. They would go to church on the important days. They focused on prayers of the saints, pilgrimages, and devotion. The institutional religion would have rules and a structure that people would follow. They had to pay taxes/dues based on the religion that they believed in. The popular religion was helpful to the people who were a part of the community. The people of the popular religion was seen as more reliable group of people.
What intellectual developments led to the emergence of the Enlightenment?
The intellectual developments led to the emergence of the Enlightenment were religious skepticism, travel literature, and the works of Isaac Newton and John Locke. First off, religious skepticism was a large cause of the Enlightenment because more and more people began to question religious values as the scientific knowledge spread. Next is travel literature, which involved the publishing of travel books. This kind of literature opened new doors to exploring the idea of other cultures and customs, which allowed for the emergence of the Enlightenment. Finally, John Locke and Issac Newton ideas offered the hope of a new world built on reason.
