Chapter 18: Construction Issues

Air Conditioning

Now that contractors install HVAC systems in most new homes, central air conditioning has become much more common. Most air conditioning units are situated outside of the home or building, either near a wall or on the roof. However, in some instances the unit could be located in the basement of the structure.

Oil-fired air furnace

Oil-fired furnaces have a heat exchanger, which is the place where the fuel is burned. Oil-fired systems require a storage tank - either above or below ground - to hold the fuel that is delivered to the homeowner. Oil-fired furnaces and boilers are a popular choice in areas of the country with limited access to natural gas, such as the Northeast.

Shading

natural or planned in the design - that a structure gets will impact the energy efficiency of the building. If there are mature trees on the property, they can be used to provide natural shade. The placement of the building on the lot relative to the natural, existing vegetation will determine how much sunlight the building will receive at specific times of the day.

Non-bearing walls

part of the interior framework and do not support the building itself.

Steam System

-needs a boiler, pipes, and convectors or radiators to operate; steam is produced in the boiler and moves through the pipes to convectors or radiators that release the steam into the room -less effective than hot water systems, often found in older buildings

If the area between the foundation walls has been partially excavated, what is the result?

A crawl space has been created.

What is the most common type of heating system in North America and how does it work?

A forced-air heating system is the most common. It draws room air through ductwork and a filter into a furnace, where the air is heated. The warmed air is then blown back to rooms through ductwork.

New Home Construction

A one-year builder's warranty against construction defects. A two-year warranty for plumbing, electrical, heating and air conditioning systems. A six-year warranty for material defects.

Conduit

A pipe made from plastic, steel or aluminum that is used for protection and routing of electrical wiring. Conduit can be used for both above ground and underground applications.

What is a sill plate and what does it do?

A sill plate is a wooden support member that is laid on top of and bolted to the foundation wall. This sill plate serves as the base for the wall framing.

What is not typically included in a building's specifications?

A specific selling price which the property will be listed at when completed.

Slab-on-Grade Construction

A structure which does not include a basement. The first floor is made up of a concrete slab, which lays on the ground and supported by foundation walls.

Post and Beam Construction

A type of construction in which the beams and joists are larger, allowing the floor to span longer than the typical 16" or 24" found in residential construction.

balloon construction

A type of framing with long studs going up the entire length of the house, from the foundation to the roof. This type of construction is not widely used today.

What are the two types of heat pumps available?

Air source and ground source

Aluminum versus Copper (wiring materials)

Aluminum wiring is used where the current is the heaviest, usually where the current comes into the building. It is also used for heavy appliances, such as dryers and air conditioners. Aluminum wiring has been known to cause overheating in outlets and switches that are not designed for use with aluminum wire, so older buildings should be inspected to be sure there are no potential wiring problems. Copper wiring does not overheat and it can carry both large and small loads. Most new buildings have copper wire throughout, except at the service entrance where aluminum is still used.

_____________ is anything attached to a piece of land or building such that it becomes a part of that property and is passed on to a new owner when the property sells.

An appurtenance

Electric air furnace

An electric furnace uses a resistance heating element to create heat directly in the air stream. Inside the jacket or cabinet will be controls, a blower, and the circuit breakers for the heating elements. Some furnaces have the breakers accessible from the outside of the cabinet.

Smoke Detectors

An operable single-station smoke detector must be installed in every one- and two-family home, condominium and cooperative in New York. The smoke detector must be installed in such a fashion to be clearly audible in every sleeping room, even with intervening doors closed. Each apartment in a multiple dwelling must have at least one clearly-audible smoke detector. In NYC, smoke detectors must be installed in every apartment and near each sleeping room.

Zoning

As we discussed in detail in the previous chapter, zoning regulates the use and development of a parcel of property.

BX Cable (wiring materials)

BX cable is technically known as armored cable or "AC." It has a flexible aluminum or steel sheath over the conductors and is fairly resistant to damage.

Pipe Size

Building codes dictate the minimum pressure (the lowest pressure that will allow the system to operate safely and efficiently) for plumbing fixtures. The codes also dictate the maximum pressure allowed, which is the highest pressure that will not cause damage to the system.

Which type of pipe is typically found in drainage systems?

Cast iron

Name three types of pipes used in plumbing systems.

Cast iron Copper PVC

Landscaping

During construction, soil will often be without grass, trees, shrubs, and other plants. Without this protective vegetation, storms can move the soil, clog storm drains and streams, and carry pesticides and nutrients into the water. To prevent erosion during construction, the developer can cover bare areas with mulch and other protective cover.

Codes

During the construction process, the developers must be certain that everything they are doing meets the local building codes. Inspectors will do periodic inspections of the progress to check for code insufficiencies. If any violations are discovered, they must be corrected.

The double top plate used in load-bearing walls is called a

Flitch beam.

Heat Pumps

For climates with moderate heating and cooling needs, heat pumps offer an energy-efficient alternative to furnaces and air conditioners. Like a refrigerator, heat pumps use electricity to move heat from a cool space into a warm space, making the cool space cooler and the warm space warmer. During the heating season, heat pumps move heat from the cool outdoors into the warm house. During the cooling season, heat pumps move heat from the cool house into the warm outdoors. Because they move heat rather than generate heat, heat pumps can provide up to 4 times the amount of energy they consume.

What kind of gas is used for cooling in air conditioners?

Freon

Gas fired air furnaces

Gas-fired furnaces have a heat exchanger to burn the fuel, which in this case is either natural gas or a petroleum gas such as propane or butane. This type of heating is popular in New York because it is less expensive and eliminates the need for oil delivery.

Which type of building is exempt from the current New York energy code?

Historical

Hot Water System

Hydronics is the name for the use of water as the heat-transfer medium in heating and cooling systems. Some of the oldest and most common examples are steam and hot-water radiators. In any hot water system, the water is heated in a boiler and circulated by means of one or more circulator pumps.

PEX pipe

Ideally suited for potable water plumbing applications. It is flexible, making it easy to install and service. PEX is able to withstand the high and low temperatures found in plumbing and heating applications, and it is highly resistant to chemicals found in the plumbing environment. PEX is also very resistant to freezing and breaking. PEX systems have fewer joints and are easier to install providing a lower-cost installation over traditional plumbing materials.

Platform Construction

In platform-frame construction, first floor joists are completely covered with sub-flooring to form a platform upon which exterior walls and interior partitions are erected. This is the type of construction most generally used in home building.

Affidavit for Smoke Alarm and Carbon Monoxide Detector

In the sale of all one-and two-family homes, condominiums and cooperatives, the seller must give an affidavit to the buyer that states the dwelling has operable smoke and carbon monoxide detectors. The buyer has ten days from the date of the deed to notify the seller if the alarms are not working, at which point the seller must pay to fix or replace them.

Walks

Many building departments require contractors to install walkways of some type, depending on the construction site. Most codes require a walkway from the front door to the street or driveway of a residential dwelling HUD requires that walkways be installed to all homes and buildings in a subdivision

Life Expectancies (AC)

Most central air conditioning units can be expected to last about 15-20 years. However, this number may be affected by the climate in the geographical location of the unit. For example, a central air conditioning unit in Florida probably has a life expectancy of closer to 10 years.

Home Improvement Contracts

New York business law states that any home improvement contractor who enters into a contract for more than $5,000 must deposit any payments he or she receives into an escrow account until the project is completed. the contractor must give the owner a schedule of such progress payments showing the amount of each payment and the state of completion of the work, including materials. The owner can cancel the contract within three business days of signing it, by providing written notice to the contractor. The three-day right to cancel the contract can be waived for emergency repairs if the owner initials the contract and gives the contractor a written waiver statement.

What site requirements are regulated by New York State?

New York regulates wells and sanitary waste systems

What are the three types of frame construction?

Platform Balloon Post and Beam

What are 2x4s used to frame the roofing system called?

Rafters

Brass Pipe

Rarely used in plumbing installations today because of its expense.

Headers

Required at window and door openings to carry vertical loads across the opening. Headers may be supported by doubled studs or, where the span does not exceed 3 feet, framing anchors may be used with single supporting studs. Headers are also known as lintels. They support the ceiling and the roof over the doors and windows.

Heating Systems

Residential heating systems typically fall into one of these categories: hot water, steam, forced air or electric.

Roof Framing

Roof construction must be strong enough to withstand anticipated snow and wind loads. Framing members must be securely fastened to each other, to sheathing and to exterior walls to enable the roof system to serve as a structural unit.

The wooden support that serves as the base for the wall framing is called what?

Sill plate

In platform framing, what are the members called that frame the structure?

Studs

What does a footing do?

Supports the entire weight of a structure

oil storage tank

The Department of Environmental Conservation does not regulate underground storage tanks (USTs) or above ground storage tanks (ASTs) that are less than 1,100 gallons. This would include most residential heating oil tanks. However, homeowners are not exempt from reporting leaks and spills and arranging for clean-up and/or repair when they occur.

Carbon Monoxide Detectors

The Fire Prevention and Building Code of New York requires that at least one carbon monoxide detector be installed in all one-and two-family homes, condominiums and cooperatives that were built on or after December 1, 2002. The detector can be hard-wired into the electrical system or it can be battery-operated. In New York City, the detector must be placed within 15 feet of the main entrance to the bedrooms. Owners must file a certificate of installation with the Department of Housing Preservation and Development within 10 days of installation.

National Electric Code

The National Electric Code covers the installation of electrical conductors, equipment, and optical fiber cables

New York On-Site Well Requirements

The New York State Department of Health (NYSDOH) provides guidelines for the construction of such wells. The guidelines include information about the proper location for the well

What does the New York Uniform Fire Prevention and Building Code require regarding vapor barriers that the National Building Code does not require?

The barrier must be treated for termites.

A detailed set of plans used as a guide when constructing the building is called

The blueprint

Air-Cooled and Water-Cooled Systems (AC)

The difference between air-cooled and water-cooled units is the method used to condense the refrigerant as it leaves the compressor. Air-cooled units use air as the condensing medium and have a fan that moves the air over the coils. Water-cooled units use water as the condensing medium and use a pump to circulate the water through the condenser and out to a cooling tower. Air-cooled units typically cost less to purchase and maintain because they do not require a cooling tower, pumps and condenser water chemical treatment. However, water-cooled units are generally much less expensive to operate because they can take advantage of lower condensing temperatures.

Wall Finishing

The high resistance of wood frame construction to hurricane, earthquake and other natural forces is provided when wood sheathing is nailed to the outside edges of exterior wall studs, plates and headers. This sheathing must be applied in strict accordance with manufacturer's nailing requirements to provide a rigid, yet resilient, wood frame system. Some structural panels function as both sheathing and siding. Siding can also be metal or vinyl. For interior wall finishing, contractors use plasterboard, wallboard or sheetrock.

Identifying Amperage

The panel where the fuses or circuit breakers are located may have an amperage rating written on it. However, the only sure way to know the service size is by looking at the service entrance cables for a size indication.

blueprint

The plan for the building

loose fill insulation

Thermal insulation in the form of mineral wool fibers, granular vermiculite or perlite, or treated cellulosic fibers, poured by hand or blown through a nozzle into a cavity or over supporting membrane

Greenfield Conductors

This is a type of flexible metal conduit (FMC) similar to armored cable, except that the conductors are installed by the electrician

bearing walls

Those walls that support the ceiling and the roof

Copper Pipe

Used for both water supply lines and drainage. Copper lasts longer than other metal pipes. It is easy to work with and resists corrosion. Copper is used for both hot and cold water supply lines. Copper pipe can be rigid or flexible, depending on the application.

Galvanized Pipe

Used for hot and cold water supply lines. Galvanized steel pipe was commonly used years ago for the water supply lines, but more recently it has been replaced by other types of pipe. Steel is not used for underground plumbing.

Cast iron pipes

Used for underground drainage systems because of its strength and sturdiness. It can be lightweight or heavyweight, depending on the application. Iron pipes are very heavy and are prone to rusting on the inside.

PVC pipe

Used mostly in areas where hard water is a problem. PVC is plastic pipe, so it is very lightweight and inexpensive. Unlike metal pipe, PVC crushes more easily, is less resistant to heat and requires more support because it is so much more flexible than metal. Some municipalities including New York City have restrictions on the use of PVC pipe.

What is the difference between voltage and amperage?

Voltage is a measure of how much pressure the electrons in a circuit are under. Amperage is a measure of the amount of electrons moving through the circuit.

Venting Requirements

Water and wastes are carried from the kitchen, laundry and bathroom fixtures through a system of pipes that lead to the main structure drain. A venting system is made up of pipes that allow air to flow to and from the drainage system. The vent system allows gases and odors to circulate up through the system and escape into the outside air.

Drainage

Water entering buildings is one of the major sources of construction claims, so drainage of surface water away from the structure is a critical factor during construction. If possible, the area around the building should be graded so that the land slopes away from the building. When this is not possible, an alternate drainage system should be put in place - such as surface drains or underground perforated drains.

Certificate of Occupancy

When construction is complete, final inspections will be done and if all is up to code, the building department will issue a certificate of occupancy.

Footings

When preparing the site for a structure, the ground itself forms the bed for the structure's foundation. That part of the foundation which transmits loads directly to the soil The purpose is to spread the load over a greater area to prevent or reduce settling. This holds the entire weight of the building.

Roof Finishing

When roof rafters are installed, they typically extend beyond the structure walls to form an overhang. The overhangs are called eaves. The eaves are the lowest part of the roof. The contractor then installs a thin impermeable material called flashing to prevent water penetration and/or provide water drainage between the roof and the walls. Flashing is often installed over exterior door openings and windows as well. The term fascia is used to describe the vertical "fascia board" which caps the end of rafters outside the building. The fascia can be used to hold the rain gutter. The finished surface below the fascia and rafters is called the soffit.

Building Permits

Written governmental permission for the construction of a new building or an improvement to an existing structure. The purpose of the building permit is to show compliance with the zoning code to local authorities.

New York State Energy Code

addresses the design of energy-efficient building envelopes and the installation of energy-efficient mechanical, lighting and power systems through requirements which emphasize performance

Reflective

also called a radiant barrier, is a metallic foil material (usually aluminum) designed to block radiant heat transfer across open spaces. Reflective insulation is most effective at reducing cooling bills in hot, sunny climates. The effective R-value of the product will vary depending on the direction of heat flow

Appurtenances

an appurtenance is anything attached to a piece of land or building such that it becomes a part of that property and is passed on to a new owner when the property sells. It may be something tangible like a septic system or water tank, or something abstract such as an easement or right of way. In construction of a subdivision, a developer may acquire ownership of a lot or several lots which may already have appurtenances - such as a septic system or utility easements.

building specifications

are not drawings, but are written documents that explain the plan

In _____________ construction, exterior wall studs continue through the first and second stories. First floor joists and exterior wall studs both bear on the anchored sill.

balloon-frame

Walls that support the ceiling and the roof are called

bearing walls.

Contractors and developers must apply for and receive _____________ before they can start construction.

building permits

Electrical Systems

design electrical building systems, power distribution, electrical circuits, lighting distribution, circuits to keep all of the buildings of the city powered and the building equipment running properly

forced air

fan moves warm air Forced air heating is probably the type most commonly installed in North America

On-Site Sanitary Waste Systems

individual household sewage treatment systems still make up the only method of sewage treatment available to many New York State residents. Having adequate household sewage treatment system standards provide for a safe, sanitary means of treating household wastewater. Properly-designed, constructed, and maintained sewage treatment systems minimize the possibility of disease transmission and potential for contamination of ground and surface waters. the New York State Department of Health regulates the installation of individual wastewater treatment systems that receive domestic-type sewage flows of less than 1,000 gallons per day

Romex Cable

is a brand name for a type of plastic insulated wire, sometimes called non-metallic sheath. The formal name is NM. This cable is suitable for use in dry, protected areas that are not subject to mechanical damage or excessive heat. Most new homes are wired almost exclusively with NM wire.

Voltage

is a measure of how much pressure the electrons in a circuit are under.

Amperage

is a measure of the amount of electrons moving through the circuit.

spray foam insulation

is a two-part liquid containing a polymer (such as polyurethane or modified urethane) and a foaming agent. The liquid is sprayed through a nozzle into wall, ceiling, and floor cavities. As it is applied it expands into a solid cellular plastic with millions of tiny air-filled cells that fill every nook and cranny. it is good for irregularly shaped areas and around obstructions. cost more than traditional batt insulation

Septic Systems

is an onsite system designed to treat and dispose of domestic sewage. It is used when a sewer line is not available to carry wastes to a sewage treatment plant.

Rigid Board Insulation

is commonly made from fiberglass, polystyrene, or polyurethane and comes in a variety of thicknesses with a high insulating value of approximately R-4 to R-8 per inch. This type of insulation is used for work on flat roofs, on basement walls and as perimeter insulation at concrete slab edges, and in cathedral ceilings.

Batt and blanket insulation

is made of mineral fiber -- either processed fiberglass or rock wool -- and is used to insulate below floors, above ceilings, and within walls. Generally, batt insulation is the least expensive wall insulation material but requires careful installation for effective performance.

British Thermal Unit (BTU) Ratings

is the amount of heat energy needed to raise the temperature of one pound of water by one degree F. BTUs measure the amount of heat an air conditioning unit can remove from the room. As the BTU rating increases, so does the size, weight and cost of the unit.

R-factor

is the degree or resistance to the heat transfer. The R-factor of a surface determines how quickly heat is conducted across it. The larger the R-factor, the greater the insulation value.

Ventilation

is the intentional movement of air from outside a building to the inside.

building envelope

is the separation between the interior and the exterior environments of a building. It serves as the outer shell to protect the indoor environment as well as to facilitate its climate control.

Electric Heat

is usually in the form of baseboard heaters along the walls of a room, although it can be in the form of a heat pump it can be precisely controlled to allow a consistency of temperature within very narrow limits; it is cleaner than other methods of heating because it does not involve any combustion; it is considered safe because it is protected from overloading by automatic breakers; it is quick to use and to adjust; and it is relatively quiet.

Types of insulation

loose fill, batts and blankets, rigid board, spray foam and reflective.

Foundation Walls

sits on top of the footing and is usually about 8 inches wide and made of poured concrete or concrete blocks. If the area between the foundation walls has been excavated deeply enough to provide head room, then a basement has been created. If the foundation area is only partially excavated, then what results is called a crawl space.

Floor Framing

system of sills, girders, joists or floor trusses and sub-flooring that provides support for floor loads and gives lateral support to exterior walls. A sill plate is a wooden support member that is laid on top of and bolted to the foundation wall. This sill plate serves as the base for the wall framing. The sill plates are the first part of the frame to be set in place.

The detailed set of plans that will be used as a guide to construct the building are

the blueprints

Wood Framing

the framework of the structure. The exterior framing must be large enough and strong enough to support floor and roof loads. The walls must also resist lateral wind loads and, in some locations, earthquake forces.

The slope of the roof is also known as

the pitch.