Chapter 2-1
Identify a response you would like to see your students make in an increasingly self-regulated fashion. Then describe two specific strategies you might use to promote their self-regulation. Your strategies should be based on concepts and/or principles that social cognitive theorists provide.
A student behavior that is appropriately self-regulated. should be identified. Then, two concrete strategies should be described that reflect two or more of the following ideas: Provide opportunities for students to set their own goals. Have students talk themselves through a task. Have students observe and record their own behavior. Have students evaluate their own performance; possibly compare students' self-evaluations to their teacher's evaluations. Teach students to reinforce themselves for successful performance. Give students opportunities to learn without teacher assistance. Occasionally assign activities in which students have considerable leeway regarding goals, use of time, and so on. Provide any scaffolding that students might initially need to help them use self-regulating strategies. Model self-regulating cognitive processes by "thinking aloud" about these processes. Teach students steps to follow when they encounter a difficult problem. Teach students to mediate one another's interpersonal conflicts.
learning is best supported when schools have
A vision for student learning, including a commitment to support and foster growth in all students A culture of reflection and evaluation leading to action A plan for school growth and development Effective leadership that fosters growth and makes data-driven decisions High quality resources Sufficient budgets Professional development programs Strong links to the community An effective assessment system An educated and committed staff
Boys and girls scholastic abilities
Boys and girls tend to be similar in IQ scores and school achievement. Language-based tasks, girls have the advantage. visual-spatial skills, boys have the advantage.
Teacher create opportunities for children to integrate learning across multiple domains
Children develop holistically
Woolfolk (2011, p. 380) summarizes five constructivist strategies to support learning:
Embed learning in complex, realistic, and relevant learning environments. Provide for social negotiation and shared responsibility as a part of learning. Support multiple perspectives and use multiple representations of content. Nurture self-awareness and an understanding that knowledge is constructed. Encourage ownership in learning.
Teachers can foster the development of learning strategies by
Encouraging children to repeat and practice new information and skills Teaching and modeling effective strategies, including using a think-aloud approach Providing resources to help with organization, such as charts or worksheets Teaching mnemonics that help students organize information into categories or chunks, such as acronyms Teaching note-taking and outlining skills to guide reading Giving students specific questions to ask themselves as they study Encouraging children to seek help when a task is difficult Asking children to describe how they are trying to learn and remember
What are some advantages of flexible learning groups, compared to traditional ability grouping?
Flexible groups allow students to interact with a broader and most likely more diverse range of students over the course of the school year. Flexible groups can be modified to meet different instructional goals. Students can move from group to group as skills, interests, or instructional materials change. The lack of a rigid structure allows students gain opportunities to practice self-regulatory skills. Students may have more input into instructional materials and assessments. Teachers have more opportunity for differentiated instruction. Flexible groups usually carry less stigma.
Differences between boys and girls
Girls have a slight advantage in fine motor skills Boys are more physically active than girls. Boys develop their physical and motor skills more (e.g., through participation in large-group games and organized sports). After puberty, boys have the advantage in skills requiring height or strength.
Which one of the following teachers is definitely keeping in mind Piaget's idea that assimilation and accommodation are both necessary for learning and cognitive development to occur?
Mr. Baretta shows students how a new topic is similar to the things they already know, but also different in certain ways.
Many of the second-grade boys at Sunrise Elementary School have begun to wear the same style of clothing and to use distinctive words frequently in their speech.
Not typical. Affiliation with a particular subculture is most common in adolescence.
When Mr. Mellon tells 8-year-old Jessica that he feels "sad" today, she has no idea why he should feel sad when she herself feels happy.
Not typical. By age 4 or 5, children have some understanding that other people are apt to have thoughts and feelings different from their own.
Students in a fourth-grade class are studying different denominations of money and have learned what pennies, nickels, dimes, and quarters are worth. As the students watch, the teacher places ten nickels in a stack and spreads another ten nickels all around on the floor. "Which set of nickels would you rather have—the ten nickels stacked up or the ten nickels spread apart?" Louise says she would rather have the ten nickels stacked up because there are more of them.
Not typical. Conservation of number — the ability to recognize that the lines have the same number of coins regardless of how they are stacked or spread — appears sometime around age 6 or 7, during what Piaget would call the early part of the concrete operations stage.
Roger, a fourth grader, gets visibly angry when he sees several "skinheads" taunt an African American classmate. "Racism is wrong," he says. "Everyone on this planet is equal. We are all entitled to human dignity and the respect of our fellow human beings."
Not typical. From the perspective of Kohlberg's theory, Roger shows postconventional moral reasoning, which is rare before college.
In a discussion of dinosaurs, a fifth-grade teacher shows his class a picture that illustrates what some paleontologists think a newly discovered dinosaur species probably looked like. Ten-year-old Kareem raises his hand and says, "That's only what some scientists think. I read in my dinosaur book at home that other scientists think it looked a lot different than that. I guess scientists will have to look harder and find more bones. Maybe they'll figure out how it really looked, and maybe they won't."
Not typical. Kareem's views of the nature of knowledge (i.e., his epistemological beliefs) are quite advanced for a 10-year-old. He acknowledges that differing viewpoints may have equal validity and that knowledge about a topic continues to evolve over time; such understandings are rare in elementary age students.
Marcus, a kindergartner, seems to have no trouble understanding what others say to him. He follows instructions well and seems attentive in class. His speech is comprehensible about 70% of the time, and he has particular difficulty producing certain consonant sounds, such as /r/ and /z/. He is reluctant to speak in class as a result.
Not typical. Marcus shows signs of an expressive speech delay. By age 4, most children have fully comprehensible speech and can easily retell stories or recount events and memories. However, note that difficulty producing a few consonants is not uncommon for children at this age, and these two sounds are typically late developing.
Marianthe is beginning third grade in the fall and shows a particular interest in problems and games involving numbers, but she hated math class in second grade. She rarely finished worksheets and earned only mediocre grades. Her teacher noted that Marianthe always wanted to know why her answers were correct or incorrect and sometimes stubbornly insisted that math class is boring.
Not typical. Marianthe's behavior suggests she's gifted in math and is not being challenged by the traditional curriculum.
When 12-year-old Rita reads a novel, she reads it very slowly, pointing at each word and stopping to sound out such words as enough, together, and potato.
Not typical. Most 12-year-olds have been reading for a few years and have automatized identification of most common words, and so they should be able to read such words quickly and effortlessly.
Six-year-old Marianne sees a mother rabbit run into its hole and thinks that because the mother no longer exists, her babies must now be orphans with no one to take care of them.
Not typical. Object permanence—recognizing that things continue to exist even when they disappear from sight—is acquired in infancy, during what Piaget identified as the sensorimotor stage.
Students in a second-grade class in Colorado take a field trip to the Denver Museum of Natural History, where the students see a large skeleton of a brontosaurus. Ophelia says to her teacher, "I know how we can remember that word. Brontosaurus sounds like the Denver Broncos [the local football team], and the Broncos are really big just like this dinosaur is!"
Not typical. Ophelia is demonstrating considerable elaboration: she is intentionally trying to embellish on information as a way of helping her learn it. Elaboration, when used intentionally as a learning strategy, rarely occurs before early adolescence.
A first-grade teacher creates weekly spelling lists for her students by choosing spelling words from narrative or expository books she reads students during the week. She believes that this will help build her students' vocabulary as well as expose them to meaningful spelling words. However, many students fail their Friday test even as she has students practice memorizing the spelling of each word during the week.
Not typical. While revisiting words from their listening experiences with narratives and expository text raises students' word consciousness, most beginning readers use their knowledge of the names of letters of the alphabet to spell phonetically or alphabetically. Spelling lessons are best based on developmental word patterns. Typically, many first graders are letter name-alphabetic spellers.
"Students who believe they can successfully accomplish a particular task or activity are more likely to be motivated and to achieve their goals."
Self-efficacy is an important part of social learning theory.
"People learn by watching and imitating what others do."
The ideas of modeling and vicarious learning are characteristic of social learning theory. Social learning theorists focus on the ways in which people learn from observing one another.
"Thought processes cannot be directly observed."
This statement is characteristic of the behaviorist theory of learning. Behaviorists argued that, because thoughts can't be observed directly, researchers should focus on overt and visible behaviors to understand how particular stimuli lead to specific, learned responses. Contrast this approach with the information processing approach, which infers mental processes and postulates specific mechanisms (e.g., the memory model) to explain those processes.
"Learning involves the development of integrated bodies of knowledge and beliefs that may or may not be accurate and useful understandings of the world."
This statement reflects a constructivist approach to learning. According to this theory, the individual learner takes an active role in creating, or constructing, a framework for information presented to the senses.
Students who are good learners can quickly perceive, interpret, and mentally manipulate information."
This statement reflects information processing theory; perception, memory, and other operations are the focus of this learning theory.
"To understand learning, we must consider not only the learner but also the social, cultural, and historical contexts in which that learner lives."
This statement would likely be made by a theorist from the sociocultural perspective on learning. According to this theory, learners encounter culturally appropriate ways of thinking in social interactions within their communities.
"Students won't learn to follow rules unless they are punished for misbehavior."
This statement would most likely be made by a strict behaviorist who focuses on operant conditioning. Operant conditioning suggests that behaviors that are punished will decline or disappear.
Vygotsky's concept of internalization?
Through their social interactions with other people, children develop ways of mentally approaching and thinking about a task.
When a fifth grader tells 6-year-old Emmy that it's okay to hit a classmate if they are being mean, Emmy replies, "No, it's not. It's not nice to hurt other kids."
Typical. Although Kohlberg proposed that young children are primarily concerned about consequences for themselves, other researchers have found that even preschoolers recognize that some behaviors, especially those harmful or unfair to others, are inherently wrong.
Ten-year-old Carlos and his 7-year-old brother Manny visit the local library and take out a book on dinosaurs—one of Manny's favorite subjects. When the boys return home, Carlos reads the book to Manny. Later that day, Manny can recall much more of the book's content than Carlos can.
Typical. As a general rule, older children can learn and remember things more easily because they have more knowledge about the world to which they can relate new information and experiences. Because of his interest in dinosaurs, Manny probably has more prior knowledge about dinosaurs and so has the advantage in understanding and remembering the book's content.
A first-grade teacher places 15 different objects on his desk and asks his students to look at them carefully. He says, "I'm going to cover these up in just a few seconds. How many things do you think you will be able to remember five minutes from now?" His students confidently agree that they will be able to remember almost all of the objects. As it turns out, they can remember an average of only 6 or 7 objects apiece.
Typical. Children in the early elementary grades tend to be overly optimistic about how much they will be able to remember.
When a fourth-grade teacher describes decimals, her students are totally confused. She tries several different ways of teaching the concept decimal, but without much success.
Typical. Decimals are proportions. From Piaget's perspective, proportional thinking doesn't appear until the beginning of the formal operations stage, when children are, on average, about 11 or 12.
Seven-year-old Lori asks, "Why don't sailors fall off the earth when they get to the end of the ocean?"
Typical. Misconceptions about the physical world are common throughout the elementary grades and are often derived from how things appear to be. For instance, in our everyday experiences, the world appears to be flat rather than round.
Ten-year-old Martin studies his spelling words by repeating the letters of each word over and over again.
Typical. Rehearsal is a common learning strategy during the later elementary school years.
Students in a fifth-grade class are studying dinosaurs. With the three conditions for meaningful learning in mind, choose the student who is most likely to engage in meaningful learning.
When the teacher describes the tremendous size of some of the dinosaurs, Becky remembers a huge brontosaurus skeleton she saw at a museum.
Jerome is a student in your classroom for whom the only effective reinforcer is something to eat, such as candy. You would like Jerome to find your praise reinforcing as well. From an operant conditioning perspective, your best strategy would be which one of the following?
Whenever you give Jerome something to eat, give him praise as well.
Late adolescence 14-18 years
achieve of sexual maturity and adult height, regular exercise, specific eating habits, dating, career tracks, depth of study in subject areas, indolence, questioning of rules and social norms
Vygotsky
argued that children thought structure develops through interaction with individuals in their environment, informed by the culture in which they live.
certain instructional strategies are especially effective for fostering self-regulation include
assigning complex tasks that have multiple steps, providing opportunities to work independently,developing cooperative learning projects
Difficulty focusing on more than one aspect of a situation at a time is known as
centering
Piagets stage theory
comes from a cognitive -developmental perspective and address the qualitative changes in children thought processes from infancy through adolescence.
Most school age children have developed piagets called
concerte operations, they have moved beyond the pre-operational thinking of early childhood and can think logically about concert, real-life objects and events but cannot yet reason abstractly or think about hypothetical situations
Morris is trying to remember how to spell the word broccoli. He retrieves the first three letters (B R O) and the last three (O L I), then assumes that the "kuh" sound in the middle of the word must be a K. He writes "brokoli" on his paper. Morris' process of remembering how to spell the word (in this case, incorrectly) illustrates the use of:
construction in retrieva
teaching the concert operational child
continue the use concrete props and visual aids especially when dealing with sophisticated material, give students a chance to manipulate and test objects, make sure presentations and reading are brief and well-organized, use familiar examples to explain more complex ideas, give opportunities to classify and grow objects and ideas on increasingly complex levels, present problems that require locial, analytical thinking.
What are some of the common roles of a teacher
decision maker, problem solver, resource person, facilitator, advisor, coach, model, disciplinarian
holistically
dependent learning
Erikson's psychosocial theory
development comes from a psychodynamic perspective and is based on the idea that individuals experience internal conflicts at various stages in life, and interaction with others in the environment leads to the resolution of those conflicts ( often called the crises)
Reciprocal relations
developmental domains s reflected in children entry into organized sports during early elementary grades
individuals who attempt a task that is above their ZPD
do not learn to complete it independently and ofter cannot complete it even with scaffolding.
provide curriculum content that encourages student to recognize other viewpoints, provide opportunities to work in small- group situations
egocentic
Kohlberg theory
emphasizes the development of moral reasoning, young children reason pre conventionally making judgments about moral behavior based on the likelihood or rewards or punishments
Teacher can help students to set appropriate goals and to plan action to achieve them by
explain and model how to set reasonable goals, provide resources to track progress toward a goal, provide resources and teach students strategies for self- evaluation, model and teach strategies for rewarding successes, encourage risk-taking while acknowledging that mistakes are common and okay.
supporting personal and moral development
help students examine the kinds of dilemmas they are currently facing or will face in the future, help students see the perspectives of others, help students make connections between expressed values and actions, safeguard the privacy of all participants, make sure students are really listening to each other, make sure that as much as possible your class reflects concern for moral issues and values
analytic
independent learning
Jules is discovering that by being able to write all his letters, he is winning the approval of his teacher. Without knowing anything else about Jules, the best guess is that he is in Erikson's stage of:
industry versus inferiority.
self-regulation.
is a process of setting standards and goals for oneself and engaging in behaviors and cognitive processes that enable one to meet those standards and goals.
Erik son theory
is the idea that all conflicts are ultimately resolved one way or the other, and the outcome of each then influences how the person tackles the next crisis.
Encourage industry
make sure the students have opportunities to set and word toward realistic goals, give students a chance to show their independence and responsibility, provide the support to students who seem discouraged
operations
mental transformations
What are the roles of a student
observer, active listener, collaborator, self- directed learner, tutor, model
Classical conditioning
occurs when a formerly neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus that naturally or reflexively evokes a behavior or feeling. Example recess negative events
Operant conditioning
occurs when a particular behavior is either reinforced (leading to recurrence of the behavior) or punished (leading to extinction of the behavior). Example external rewards
what will the teacher observe at Early adolescence 10-14 years
puberty, growth spurt, think and reason about abstract ideas, exposure to advance content, peer relations, sexual interest , challenges to adults and rules , moodiness
How can an elementary teacher best support students who live in a more dangerous community?
relationship between school and community is reciprocal — the skills and the sense of trust that develop in a supportive school carry over students' interactions in the community, and the more students feel part of and responsible for that community, the more likely it is that the community will grow and change along with them.
A number of key classroom practices that affect learning
safe and supportive environment,responding to misbehavior,planning and implementing instruction that engages students, and effective communication strategies
proximal development ZPD
scaffolded or assisted with tasks, that are manageable for students to complete, person's zone
helping students understand and remember
students attention, help students separate essential from nonessential details and focus on the most important information, help students make connections between new information and what they already know, provide for repetition and review of information, present material in a clear organized way, focus on meaning, not memorization.
inferiority
students feel that their efforts or their outcomes are inadequate
industry
students feel that they can master new tasks and complete challenges successfully
applying Vygotsky idea in teaching
tailor scaffolding to needs of students, make sure students have access to powerful tools that support thinking, build on the students cultural funds of knowledge, capitalize on dialogue and group learning
School -age children face task that require more individual responsibility but
they also begin to compare their abilities to those of their peers and the outcomes of their efforts to the expectations of parents/ guardians and teachers.
Piaget contended that at about the time children enter school
they make a transition from preoperational thought to concrete operational thought.
Gaining and maintaining attention
use signals, reach out rather than call out, make sure the purpose of the lesson or assignments is clear students, incorporate variety curiosity and surprise, ask questions and provide frames for answering
