Chapter 2

Functional Theory: The Need for Inequality (Cont.)

Functionalists begin with the assumption that all societies are made up of different and necessary roles that must be filled in order for the society to function. Society is comparable to the human body, made up of various organs that must be working for the body to be in balance. A person cannot function as well with one lung as with two, and without at least one, the person cannot survive. Similarly, society cannot function (and survive) unless people play different roles - farming, manufacturing, education, governing, etc.

Socialism

1. Socialism: Worker exploitation would diminish, the state (government) would pass laws that reflected the interests of the proletariat.

Traditional Authority

1. Traditional Authority: in these systems people obey out of a sense of tradition. For example, in a monarchy, a King or Queen inherits the throne because it has "always been that way." Ex. Pope Francis, Hassanal Bolkiah, Elizabeth II Queen of the United Kingdom

Communism

2. Communism: A classless society (Utopia), characterized by a complete end to economic exploitation. The state would wither away because there would be no more class interest to uphold.

The Class Division

All societies at different stages give rise to two opposing classes (masters & slaves), (lord & serfs), (capitalists & workers).

Authority

Authority In modern bureaucratic organizations there are clear distinctions of power. For example in a schools system, a superintendant has more power than a principal, who has more power than a teacher, who has more power than a student. By virtue of their position in the organization, they have capacity to impose their will over others.

Bourgeoisie

Bourgeoisie (Capitalist Class): Those who own the means of production.

Charismatic Authority

Charismatic Authority: people obey certain individuals who assume and maintain their positions on the strength of their personal appeal and ability to capture the attention of large numbers of people. Ex. King Hussein of Jordan,Mahatma Gandhi, Adolf Hitler, Aung San Suu Kyi

Clas (Cont.)

Class Example of Class Distinctions: A doctor and a custodian are both hospital workers and (not owners), but they are in very different class positions. A landlord who acquires income from rent is different from a stockowner who receives dividends although they are both part of the bourgeoisie.

Class

Class For Weber a class comprises those who stand in a similar position with regard to their opportunities to acquire the society's economic rewards (life chances). Weber pointed out that occupation (rather than ownership or non-ownership) is the basis of how social classes are formed.

Class Conflict and Societal Change

Class Conflict and Societal Change Marx believed that the proletariat eventually recognize their common socioeconomic interests and are prepared to engage in struggle against the bourgeoisie. This struggle leads to social change which gives rise to a new mode of production and creates a new ruling class. The slave system gave way to the feudal system, which gave way to the capitalist system. Example: Slave System: Masters became wealthy off of the free labor of slaves. Feudal System: Nobles and Lords who owned land became wealthy off of the cheap labor of serfs. Capitalist System: Capitalists became wealthy off of the cheap labor of workers.

Class Division (Capitalists and Workers)

Class Division - A Systemic Problem Marx viewed society as a system. The personal identities of the capitalists or the workers, whether or not as individuals they are good or bad people is of no relevance to Marx's theory. Capitalists: They are required in their role to exploit workers, not increase wages or share their profits. The system compels them to do it or else other capitalists will force them out of the system. Workers: They have no choice but to continue to work for less than their fair share, it is the only way that they can keep themselves and their families alive.

Conflict Theory: The Dysfunctions of Inequality

Conflict theorists: View society as being organized by the power of dominant classes and ruling elites who impose their will on the majority. In this view conflict is the primary characteristic of society.

Contradictory Class Locations

Contradictory Class Locations Olin created the term "contradictory class locations" to describe social class locations occupied by people who do not fall into the 3 categories created by Marx. Wright argues that there are some people who, in their class positions, exploit labor, but are themselves exploited.

Examples of Contradictory Class Locations

Corporate managers are salaried workers but at the same time have control over the workers they supervise. Professionals such as doctors, lawyers, and teachers have little control over the means of production, but they have influence over employees (nurses, secretaries, and aides).

Lenski's Synthesis (Continuing)

Developing Societies The degree of inequality is high. More than enough is produced in society, as a result there is a surplus and internal struggles arise over how the surplus will be distributed. A small upper class (elite) controls most of the wealth and imposes its will on the rest of the population. Countries with a Gross National Income (per capita) of $11,905 (U.S.) or less are defined as "developing countries." Examples of developing countries: Afghanistan, Armenia, Belize, Columbia, Honduras, India, Mexico, Morocco, Namibia, Ukraine, Vietnam, Zimbabwe, etc.

Economic Base and Superstructure

Economic Base and Superstructure The economic base of each society, requires a whole superstructure of non-economic institutions (ex. family, religion, education, political system, etc.) that help to sustain the economic base. As a society's economic base changes, its non-economic institutions must change as well. Pre-Modern (Agrarian/Agricultural Economy) Modern (Industrial Economy) Post-Modern (Information Economy)

Erik Olin Wright

Erik Olin Wright (1947 - ) American sociologist (neo-Marxist) who studies social stratification and is currently a professor at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. In today's society, Wright argues that social class is complex and doesn't just fall into Marx's three categories - capitalists (bourgeoisies), self employed (petit bourgeoisies) and workers (proletariat). Contradictory Class Locations Olin created the term "contradictory class locations" to describe social class locations occupied by people who do not fall into the 3 categories created by Marx. Wright argues that there are some people who, in their class positions, exploit labor, but are themselves exploited.

Functional Theory: The Need for Inequality (Continued)

Functionalists argue that social inequality in society has evolved through a system where the most important roles are filled by the most qualified people. Inequality is therefore needed to induce the most qualified persons to fill the most important positions, and ensure that they will continue to perform their duties. Inequality is therefore inevitable. In no society can all roles have equal importance.

Lenski's Synthesis

Gerhard Lenski (1924 - 2015) He was an American sociologist known for his contributions to the study of social inequality. His theory of stratification and inequality is an attempt at a synthesis of the functional and conflict theoretical perspectives. He holds that the distribution of societal rewards is based on both need (functionalist view) and power (conflict theory view).

Imperatively Coordinated Associations

He said that bureaucracies are imperatively coordinated associations. These organizations dominate the economy, and it is the professional managerial class that exerts essential control over the resources of those corporations. For Dahrendorf, who controls the decision making apparatus of organizations, determines who has authoritative power in society.

Power

How did Weber define power? Weber defined power as "the possibility of imposing one's will upon the behavior of other persons." He explained that power is at the base of all forms of inequality (class, status, power) and is a primary element of all types of human interaction. Weber saw modern social organizations (bureaucracies) as the most significant force compelling the formation of ruling groups.

Conflict Theory: The Dysfunctions of Inequality (continued)

In response to the functionalists, conflict theorists ask - how are the "most important" positions in society identified? For example: If you compare the average income of teachers versus doctors, one would conclude that teachers are considerably less important in society, but is that really true? If you compare rock stars and professional athletes to doctors, than you would have to believe that doctors are less important to society, but are they?

Functional Theory: The Need for Inequality

In the 1950's debates about the nature of social inequality emerged between two general schools of thought in sociology - functionalism and conflict theory. Functionalists: View society as a relatively balanced system made up of different functioning and inter-related parts. In this view order is the primary characteristic of society.

Lenski's Synthesis (Contin.)

Industrial & Post-Industrial Societies There is inequality in society, but the degree of inequality is not as high as it is in developing societies. When the ruling classes give the lower classes a share of the economic surplus, they are better able to neutralize worker hostility and the economic losses suffered from strikes and slowdowns. Democratic ideals often take hold, making it necessary for those at the top to concede some power.

Karl Marx

Karl Marx (1818-1883) One of the founding fathers of modern social science. Disciplines such as sociology, political science, and economics draw on the works of Marx. There have been many different interpretations and applications of his work. Even when Marx was alive he thought that many misinterpreted his writings.

Legal-Rational Authority

Legal-Rational Authority: It is a rational form of organization where groups are not organized based on the authority of traditions or personalities, but on the basis of specific functions that need to be performed and objectives that need to be met. As societies more toward legal-rational authority, greater power is concentrated in bureaucratic organizations that exercise dominance over elected officials. Ex. President, Angela Merkel,Theresa May Prime Minister of the UK, Justin Trudeau Prime Minister of Canada

Lenski's First Law of Distribution

Lenski's First Law of Distribution Draws on functionalism If what people strive for (food, clothing, housing, etc.) is in short supply, they often work collectively to attain their individual selfish goals.

Lenski's Second Law of Distribution

Lenski's Second Law of Distribution Draws on conflict theory If there is a surplus (more than what is needed for survival), an element of altruism may appear in the formula, but power struggles will pursue.

Max Weber

Max Weber (1864 - 1920) He was a German sociologist who is considered one of the most important contributors to sociological theory. He built on and modified Marx's ideas. What 3 things did Weber argue that people's position in society are based on? Class, Status, and Party

Media

Media: By controlling the means of communication, the capitalist class is able to stifle opposing ideas effectively.

Party (Cont.)

Party Examples of party organizations: Political Parties (Republican Party, Democratic Party, Green Party, etc.) Labor Unions (AFL-CIO, UTLA, UFW, etc.) Consumer Groups (Consumer Reports, AARP, PIRG, etc.) Business Associations (Business Roundtable, National Alliance of Business, etc.) Professional Associations (American Medical Association, American Bar Association, etc.) Ethnic Organizations (NAACP, National Council of La Raza, Asian American Association, etc.)

Party

Party For Weber, "party" denotes political rank and one's standing in an organization that is oriented toward the acquisition of social power. Party organizations may represent class interests or status group interests.

Pierre Bourdieu

Pierre Bourdieu (1930 - 2002) He was a French sociologists and philosopher whose theories were linked to both Marx and Weber. He focused on explaining how systems of stratification and structures of inequality are formed and sustained from one generation to the next.

Proletariat

Proletariat (Working Class): Those who sell their human labor to the bourgeoisie in exchange for a wage. Marx argued that although the proletariat (workers) are responsible for the production of economic wealth through their labor, it is the bourgeoisie (owners) that get the bulk of society's wealth.

Conflict Theory: The Dysfunctions of Inequality (Continuing)

Question: Do the most innately qualified people occupy the most important roles in society? Conflict theorists argue that there are no assurances that the most qualified individuals will actually occupy key societal roles since society does not provide equality of opportunity. For example: One child's father is a corporate executive, another child's father is a factory worker. Both children dream of being doctors, but who is more likely to become a doctor? The child with more innate talents, intelligence and ambition? Or the child with the opportunities to pursue and fully develop his/her aspirations?

Conflict Theory: The Dysfunctions of Inequality (Continuing-2)

Question: Does money always induce the most qualified people to fill society's most important positions? Conflict theorists would say - not in most cases. Examples Many scientists are driven to go into research and medicine based on a quest for knowledge and discovery. Professors have an extensive amount of education, expertise, and knowledge, but in many cases earn no more than unionized factory workers. They may say that they do it because of their desire to have academic freedom and do independent research. Those who go into the teaching and social work professions often do so because of their desire to help others.

Conflict Theory: The Dysfunctions of Inequality (Cont.)

Question: What makes it possible for some positions to emerge as more important, and thus more deserving? Conflict theorists would say that it is "power." Professions that are paid well have convinced the rest of society that they are more important and therefore should be paid more money. Organizations such as the American Medical Association, have developed as political organizations that influence and sway public opinion.

Ralf Dahrendorf (Cont.)

Ralf Dahrendorf He said that bureaucracies are imperatively coordinated associations. These organizations dominate the economy, and it is the professional managerial class that exerts essential control over the resources of those corporations. For Dahrendorf, who controls the decision making apparatus of organizations, determines who has authoritative power in society.

Ralf Dahrendorf

Ralf Dahrendorf (1929 - 2009) He was a German-British sociologist and leading expert on class divisions in modern society. Dahrendorf drew on Weber's ideas about bureaucracy. He argued that in all spheres of social life - the economy, politics, education, the media, and religion - modern societies are dominated by large impersonal organizations (bureaucracies) where a few people have the right to issue authoritative commands over other people.

Neo-Marxist Theory

Revising Marx Neo-Marxists are modern theorists who have drawn on Marx's theory and made it more relevant to contemporary issues. Many social scientists do not adhere completely to Marx's theory but recognize that his ideas are useful as a method for understanding society. Sociologist C. Wright Mills referred to this group of scholars as "plain Marxists." They do not interpret Marx in a "literal" way to today's society, but draw on his ideas to understand social inequality.

Social Institutions

Social Institutions: Educational, religious, and political institutions socialize people to the dominant values (which reflect ruling-class interests).

Social Theory

Social Theory A framework for organizing observations, insight, and data. A theory explains why a particular social phenomenon exists. All theories of class and social inequality focus on two basic issues: 1.Why is there inequality in societies? 2.Is inequality inevitable?

Class Conflict and Societal Change Marx speculated that post-capitalist society would go through two phases. What are those phases?

Socialism and Communism.

Status

Status For Weber status refers to differences in prestige that derive from a particular lifestyle. Status groups distinguish between themselves based on their consumption of goods (what kinds of clothing they buy, foods they eat, where they vacation, music they listen to, etc.).

Status (Cont.)

Status Example of Status Distinction: If we compare a truck driver and a school teacher, their incomes are approximately the same, and neither are self-employed. Teaching is more prestigious than driving a truck. Becoming a teacher also requires more formal training and a college degree. The truck driver and the teacher have different preferences in music, entertainment, fashion, food, housing, etc.

Status (Continued)

Status The different lifestyles of people make for the formation of what Weber called status communities. Each status community is made up of people who have similar cultural and social interests and common consumer patterns. People usually associate with and marry others in the same status communities.

The Economic Foundation

The Economic Foundation Marx saw the dynamics of society originating in productive activity - securing food, shelter, and other necessities. The system of production by which people provide for their material existence is the society's economic foundation, or as Marx put it, mode of production. For Marx, the central fact of all human history is the necessity for societies, in every epoch, to provide the necessary goods and materials for sustenance.

The Failure of Marx's Vision (Cont.)

The Failure of Marx's Vision Communist revolutions of the 20th century - Russia (1917), China (1948), Cuba (1959) did not occur in advanced capitalist societies (as Marx predicted). The "communist" societies that took shape in these countries never represented Marxism. If Marx were alive to see those transformations, he would have been critical of them. In the U.S. racial and ethnic conflict has been more frequent than class conflict. Gender divisions have also deeply affected life chances. This was something Marx never focused on.

The Failure of Marx's Vision

The Failure of Marx's Vision Marx thought that population would become more polarized overtime (with a handful in power and a massive proletariat). However Post-WWII in the U.S. there was growth in the middle class. Economic stability was the result of intervention of the state (government) in dealing with fluctuations in the capitalist economy as well as the formation of labor unions. Neither of these developments seemed possible to Marx.

The Hegemony of the Capitalist Class (Cont.)

The Hegemony of the Capitalist Class Capitalist Class (Ruling Class): Own the Means of production - control the economy Control the state (political institutions) - therefore policies favor the ruling class. Control ideas and values (ex. culture, media, etc.) Marx - "The ideas of the ruling class are in every epoch the ruling ideas;.... The class which has the means of material production at its disposal, has control at the same time over the means of mental production, so that... The ideas of those who lack the means of mental production are subject to it.

The Hegemony of the Capitalist Class

The Hegemony of the Capitalist Class What is hegemony? the social, cultural, ideological, or economic influence exerted by a dominant group. Capitalist Class: Receive the bulk of societal rewards Maintain its power as a result of the possession of three key assets: 1.Means of Production 2.Control of the State (Political Institutions) 3.Control of Ideas and Values

Economic Capital (Pierre Bourdieu)

The income and wealth that people have.

Social Capital (Pierre Bourdieu)

The key social relationships and networks or "connections" that people have.

Cultural Capital (Pierre Bourdieu)

The norms, values, cultural tastes, lifestyles people have.

Weber's Contribution to Inequality Theory

Weber's Contribution to Inequality Theory Weber viewed stratification in society resulting from many sources (class, status, party). This helps us understand other types of stratification in today's society, for example racial/ethnic and gender stratification. Weber believed that bureaucratization would lead to greater inequality in society. He also thought it would result in greater alienation.

Bureaucracy

What are bureaucracies? Bureaucracies are organizations made up of specialists and experts. Some bureaucracies specifically advise government and business. A bureaucratic organization enables vast numbers of people playing specialized roles to blend into cohesive, well-functioning units. The purpose is to create a social machine that ensures efficiency.

False Consciousness

What is false consciousness? Lacking "class consciousness" the proletariat (workers) regard the ideas of the ruling class as "natural." The prevailing system is therefore seen as just, fair, and working in the interest of everyone.

Lenski's Synthesis (Cont.)

Why does social inequality differ from one society to another? Hunter-Gather Societies The degree of inequality is low. This is because there is little surplus being produced, as a result there is minimal conflict over who will get what. For example in hunting-and-gathering societies each member must contribute to the goal of securing food. Because all members are needed, everyone receives a proportionate share.