Chapter 2 The Colonies and Wars for Empire

Did the Spanish and French alliance take charleston?

A combined Spanish-French force attempted to take Charleston in 1706, but was beaten back by South Carolina militia in strong fortifications.

What other reasons were African Americans recruited into the militia?

A growing population of free African-Americans also enrolled in the militias, most often because they needed the pay or white neighbors who did not want to risk their own lives pressured them into service. As with enslaved African American men, there is little detail about the free men who fought unless, like Benjamin Gire from Grafton, Massachusetts, they received war-related disability payments.

How was the New England frontier hit?

All along the New England frontier, the French and their Native American allies attacked with vicious ferocity. Despite improvement in fortification, Deerfield was once again hit hard in February 1704 by a combined French-Abnaki force of more than 300, killing 50 colonists and taking more than 100 captives.

What was the plan for Fort Duquesne?

According to the plan, volunteers drawn in part form Virginia militia would augment the weak regiments. Ultimately, a force of 2,500--including three independent companies of regulars, the two Irish regiments, units of Virginia, Maryland, and North Carolina militia, and some indigenous allies--slowly set off from Fort Cumberland, Maryland, in June 1755 for Fort Duquesne.

Explain Ahmerst's campaign.

Amherst's campaign against Louisbourg, however, brought the British effort out of what must have seemed its lowest point. While Abercromby was meeting with self-inflicted disaster at Ticonderoga, Amherst, and a force of 9,000 regulars and 500 colonials, ferried by a fleet of 40 vessels, began a textbook siege on Louisbourg. Starting June 8, British troops under James Wolfe began digging the trenches that signaled the beginning of a siege. Louisbourg could be overcome— according to the military architect Vauban, who originated the fort's style—by the principles of siege warfare. With no relief from the outside, a besieged fortress could not hold out against a well-supplied siege.

What were Loudon's orders for Winslow?

Amidst these troubles, Webb dawdled, never making it to Fort Oswego, and in fact, blatantly avoided its defense. Loudoun ordered General Edward Winslow and his colonials to abandon an attack on Fort Ticonderoga on Lake George and return to defend Albany from an enemy that, in reality, was nowhere near. Loudoun then relieved Winslow and left the colonials behind, deciding that only regular British forces could win this war in North America. Manpower shortages, however, forced Loudoun to have a change of heart. He personally led an American detachment from New York to link with British regulars at Halifax in preparation for an assault against the grand prize, Fort Louisbourg. The expedition failed horribly, never managing to assault the fort, and losing almost 300 men to disease in the process. By August 1757, Loudoun abandoned the plan and returned to New York.

What were the casualties of the war?

Approximately 300 French were killed, along with 100 of their indigenous allies. The English colonists suffered around 650 dead from battle, disease, or captivity, while their Iroquois allies sacrificed more than 1,300 to combat and disease.

How did the evolution of colonies in the New World result after the Indian wars?

As far-flung settlements became permanently settled colonies, their role in imperial trade and security systems became invaluable to their respective home countries. Throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, imperial competition between Great Britain and France, and to a lesser extent Spain, for control of North American trade created fluid alliances with Native Americans, who had become dependent upon trade with colonists for manufactured goods and gunpowder. By the beginning of the eighteenth century, the North American colonies were, indeed, worth fighting for.

What happened when Frontenac reached the colony?

As is typical, the plans looked grand on paper but lost their appeal when actually implemented. When Frontenac finally reached the French capital at Quebec in late 1689, he found a colony in disarray. As was often the case for European possessions in the New World, there was a rather wide gap between what European imperial ministries supposed and what actually existed in the colonies. The French Canadians were in no condition to wage offensive campaigns against the English colonies.

Describe Benjamin Church's experience in pursuing Port Royal.

Benjamin Church, a veteran of many a conflict with Native Americans, was commissioned again in 1704 to raise a force of 550 to pursue the Abnaki and also take Port Royal. Typical of colonial warfare, Church's army fell into predictable patterns of guerrilla war, raiding here and there as it made its way toward Port Royal. Church failed to take Port Royal, however, and was forced to return to Massachusetts at the end of the summer with little to show for the effort.

How was Braddock's defeat a disaster?

Braddock's defeat was a thorough disaster for the British, who lost 63 officers and 914 men killed or wounded against French losses of 23 dead and handful of wounded. The French and their indigenous allies stayed hidden in the thick brush, firing into the British mass with deadly effectiveness. As they had been trained to do, the British regulars stood and fought but many of the Americans fled. This was an inauspicious beginning to a warthog for any hope of success would require cooperation between the British regulars and the colonials. AFter hastily burning most of the wagons and supplies, the British and American survivors retreated to Fort Cumberland, leaving Braddock's newly cut path wide open tot he French, and Washington sorely disappointed.

What was Braddock failed approach apart of?

Braddock's failed approach to Fort Duquesne was part of a three-pronged British strategy to push the French back into Canada. By taking Fort Duqeusne in the Ohio Valley, Fort Niagara and Fort St. REderic in New York, and Fort Beausejour off the Bay of Fundy in Nova Scotia, the British hoped to put the French on the defensive and open their offensive campaign to finally take Canada. The British navy would harass French troopships bound for Canada, which had already received 78 companies of French reinforcements.

Explain the casualties of the siege on Louisbourg.

Casualties were relatively light. The French lost 53 regulars killed out of a force of 600. How many of the 1,300 civilians in Louisbourg who lost their lives is unknown. The colonials lost approximately 140 men during the entire campaign, plus another 30 or so to disease, which is remarkable considering that at one point more than 1,500 men were prostrated with dysentery and other camp diseases.

How were colonists affected?

Colonists lived in constant fear of sudden attack by indigenous raiding parties that burned their farms and often took captives. Upon return to their families, captives, such as those taken at Deerfield and Haverhill in Massachusetts, often, but not always, told of horrific ordeals and brutal atrocities. To encourage terror, all of the English colonies paid bounties for scalps.

How did the French and Indian war affect North America?

Consequently, the scale of the French and Indian War dwarfed all previous conflicts in North America. While colonial forces would continue their tradition of guerrilla war, the European professional armies warred in European style at places such as the Plains of Abraham, Fort William Henry, and Montreal. And finally, unlike previous wars, this conflict produced a clear and triumphant victor.

Why were these trade routes so important?

Consequently, the wars fought between the British and French, and their Native American allies, tended to concentrate around these natural invasion routes.

Explain why Lord Loudon demanded more reinforcements?

Despite alienating the colonials, Lord Loudoun demanded more colonial regiments, more substantial material support, and more money from the colonies he had been sent to defend. The situation had long since reached the crisis point, yet to his great frustration the colonies failed to cooperate. Colonial experience held that militia stayed close to home to defend their own frontiers. British authorities had confused local militia units with colonial expeditionary units and thus could not grasp why the colonies would not provide more men. The answer was simple—militiamen defended frontier settlements; expeditionary units were drafted from militia, but only under the proviso that enough men remained to defend the home colony.

So what was left after the British had won?

Despite the victory, the British perception of the colonists as unruly, ungrateful, and ill-mannered children hardened, while the colonists grew to see Britain as an overbearing, threatening, and unsympathetic parent who failed to appreciate the value of traditional liberties in the colonies. Although victory had come and benefited both Britain and colonies, the aftermath left discord festering in the British imperial house.

What lead to the colonists attempting to regain control of fort louisbourg?

Despite this setback, events had inflated the colonists' sense of their own military prowess and deepened the contempt in which they held professional armies. The colonists also now firmly understood that the strategic contours of colonial wars demanded control of the St. Lawrence River. They knew they would have to fight to retake Louisbourg. Another 1,600 colonials, 3,000 French, and untold hundreds of Spanish and Indians had died from battle and disease in yet another colonial war that had given none of the three powers a clear advantage in North America.

What did Dudley do after he failed to take Port Royal?

Dudley was undeterred and doggedly pushed for another expedition to Port Royal. he petitioned England for troops to take the strategically important fort but was denied. England remained convinced that colonial enterprises were just that-colonial. 1707, Dudley gained permission from the Massachusetts General Court to try for Port Royal one more time. Under the command of Colonel John March, an intra-colonial expedition of 60 men from New Hampshire, 80 from Rhode Island, and two regiments from Rhode Island, and two regiments from Massachusetts departed on May 13. The force of nearly 1,100 men approached Port Royal in two groups, forcing the French into the colonies of the fortress. A well-coordinated siege appeared the obvious tactic, but the inexperienced and impatient colonial commanders badly bungled things, so much so that the militiamen lost all sense of discipline. They were not, after all, professional soldiers. They had not come all this way to sit and wait for victory through a lengthy siege.

Describe Dudley's ineptitude to recruit a strong militia.

Dudley's attempts to recruit a strong militia force met with equal ineptitude, as only a few hundred were willing to leave their homes and communities unprotected to serve in an expeditionary force.

Explain how the region was separated when there was a truce.

Events in Europe outweighed those in America. Peace came by treaty in 1713, although the fighting on both continents had halted by a truce in August 1712. This time status quo ante bellum did not rule the day, which gave the colonists some cause to rejoice. Great Britain gained Hudson Bay, Acadia (Port Royal), Newfoundland in North America, and St. Kitts and Nevis in the Caribbean, as well as strategically imperative Gibraltar from Spain. The Peace of Utrecht also preserved the Protestant throne in Great Britain, permanently separated the French and Spanish Crowns, and gave Great Britain the massive monopoly on the slave trade, known as the Asiento, for 30 years. The balance of power in the New World now favored Great Britain, but only slightly. Without their knowledge or approval, the Iroquois became subjects of the British Crown. France still held Cape Breton Island and its fortress at Louisbourg. Ironically, casualties for the British colonials were extremely light, while the British Navy and Army suffered significant losses, mostly on the St. Lawrence River.

What occurred after the war?

Fighting along the frontier continued sporadically for the next few years, mainly between the indigenous allies of the French and the Iroquois nations. In the end, the Iroquois were severely mauled and significantly weakened, while the English colonies took years to recover.

What regions used trade as a means to meet the imperial agenda?

For Britain and France in particular, such substantial investments in the North American settlements represented the importance of these colonies to their imperial systems. Fishing, the fur trade, and timber, pitch, and tar for shipbuilding made the New England and middle colonies lucrative imperial possessions. In the Chesapeake and southern colonies, tobacco, indigo, rice, and other labor-intensive crops created and the mother country. For the colonies, such a situation required military organization, support, and participation, all of which evolved with violent effect throughout the colonial period in American history.

Explain Great Britains role in this war.

For Great Britain, nothing less than the complete decapitation of the French empire in North America would suffice. Whereas in the previous wars, the colonies provided the bulk of manpower, materiel, financial support, and leadership, profesional regulars from Great Britain would take the lead in this new conflict. While the earlier conflicts in North America were mainly a slide show for continental operations, North America was the primary theater of operations in this war.

How did observers in London feel about taking Canada?

From the standpoint of observers in London, excessive and irritating bickering among the colonies had stifled attempts to take Canada. Concerning colonial warfare, Frontenac's concept of la petite guerre and the value of Native American allies grew in strategic importance, even though such strategies would prove time and again to be fundamentally flawed. They would soon again be put to the test.

How were the British Colonies affected by this victory?

For the British colonies, initial euphoria gave way to a more mixed reaction to this apparent victory. Indeed, the colonies had shown they could cooperate, though unevenly. Their militia-trained expeditions had successfully defended the region against the French and, combined with British regulars, had provided significant and able forces. Yet, they again felt let down, even betrayed, by their home government. The perceived folly of British participation in the colonial war left the colonies with a feeling of disillusionment. Their strategic interests seemed to be growing apart from that of Great Britain, which held to a strategy of the balance of power in Europe combined with a conservative approach to colonial affairs. The colonies, on the other hand, wanted to eliminate France and Spain from North America. Canada was the grand prize. After two wars, France seemed just as entrenched as ever before in Canada, the Great Lakes, and Louisiana. The colonists would get another chance to gain at the expense of Britain's imperial rivals.

Why were these trade routes important to the British?

For the British, controlling the St. Lawrence River would sever New France from its Atlantic lifeline.

How did the war go bad?

For the British, the war began to go badly despite the victory at Louisbourg. Colonial legislatures failed to regularly pay their militias, causing some to mutiny in protest. The Iroquois joined the fight against the French in the west, but received little meaningful support from their British allies, leaving them feeling ill-regard toward their British 'Father.' The French took and destroyed the British fort at Saratoga. The Royal Navy showed its complete lack of colonial understanding by sending press gangs into Boston in November 1747. Governor Shirley suddenly had a violent mob on his hands, one that actually accosted and held as prisoners several naval officers. Shirley and the mob made an exchange—the officers for those who had been impressed, and then the Royal Navy rather hastily left Boston. No one seemed happy with this war.

Explain how the fur trade affected the New England region.

For the French in Canada and British colonists in the frontier regions of New England and western New York, the fur trade was king, and it was the fur trade that caused more mischief in the colonies than any other factor. Key to the fur trade were various Native American tribes, in particular the Algonquian, who traded with the French, and the Iroquois, who often traded with the British.

Why were these trade routes important to the French?

For the French, an invasion through the Appalachian Moutains or down Lake Champlain could split New England from New York -- a classic example of divide and conquer.

How did Parliament's new interest intrude on what had been a tradition of salutary neglect?

For the colonies, Parliament's new interest in colonial matters began to intrude on what had been a tradition of salutary neglect. Postwar depression hit the colonial economy hard. A policy of taxation from the Crown caused colonial rumblings of reform if not independence. Victory in a war that had been fought to solidify and strengthen the British imperial system now threatened the system it was intended to preserve. As an example of these difficulties, Pontiac's Rebellion caused Parliament to pass the Proclamation Line of 1763, prohibiting settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains. The arbitrary move infuriated colonists, who felt they had fought and sacrificed for the right to capitalize on these vast and fertile lands. Parliament was trying to prevent future conflict in North America, but the colonists wanted to claim what they considered their just reward for the victory they helped achieve. Parliament and the colonies seemed to be headed in opposite directions.

What happened when Britain planned to attack Quebec?

For the first time, then, Britain finally landed regulars in force in the North American colonies. Sixty ships with 5,000 regulars arrived in Boston in June 1711. The colonists were overjoyed at the sight; the British commanders, Admiral Sir Hovenden Walker and General John Hill, seemed less enthusiastic. They departed for the St. Lawrence River at the end of July. Then disaster struck. The fleet sailed into a deadly storm at the mouth of the St. Lawrence River and foundered. As many as 1,600 troops and sailors lost their lives as the ships crashed aground. General Hill wanted to continue toward Quebec, but the Royal Navy overruled him. The surviving vessels sailed for home, bypassing a return to Boston. Nicholson, by this time again at Lake Champlain, could hardly believe his ears upon receiving the devastating news. Once again, the two-prong attack had to be abandoned. Two expeditions had failed--two significant investments of scarce colonial resources and money lost. A third attempt was out fo the question.

What was Fort Duquesne named after it fell?

Forbes occupied the ruins on November 25, thankful that an assault against the formidable fortress had not been required. He rebuilt the fort, renaming it Fort Pitt, and he named the new settlement Pittsburgh —both in honor of the headstrong British prime minister. Taking Fort Duquesne was an achievement of immense importance for Pitt's strategic plan and further served to soften Braddock's defeat in 1755. However, not all was serene. Forbes' army of colonials rapidly disintegrated through desertion and expired enlistments. At the end of December 1758, fewer than 200 men garrisoned Fort Pitt. Fortunately, trade goods arrived in January 1759, to help improve relations with area indigenous peoples, and Forbes's replacement, Brigadier General John Stanwix, eventually brought more than 3,000 troops to keep the Ohio Valley free of the French.

How did France respond because of the Glorious revolution?

France hoped to capitalize on what it assumed was administrative chaos in English North America because of the Glorious Revolution and the war in Europe. With Andros gone, France dispatched the aged but ambitious Count de Frontenac to Canada to oversee the conquest of New York.

Who was Frontenac and what was his plan?

Frontenac had served as governor of New France once before and was familiar with colonial political and physical geography. His plan was straightforward—to attack New York via Lake Champlain and take Albany, and hope that the Iroquois would, as a result, abandon their English friends and side with the victorious French. From that point, the French assumed the entire colony of New York would collapse as a matter of course.

Explain how geography was important to both countries and the Spanish.

Geography lent itself to a strategy of conquest, and for both British and French colonists, the urge to expand territory and control trade proved too great to resist. The Spanish, increasingly pretenders in the imperial contest, found themselves subject to similar British restlessness in the Carolinas, Georgia, and the Caribbean.

What did Governor Shirley try to accomplish?

Governor Shirley then tried to reinforce Fort Oswego in early march 1756. The first attempt to get much-needed supplies and men to the fort was met by a French-Native Americans ambush and the destruction of Fort Bull, whose inhabitants were put to the sword by the French. Lieutenant Colonel John Bradstreet led another expedition to Fort Oswego, reaching the beleaguered post in late May to deliver desperately needed food and ammunition. On his return, however, Bradstreet and his relief expedition were ambushed but managed to recover and inflict heavy casualties on their French attackers. This engagement proved only a flickering bright spot for the British, for Bradstreet's commander, Governor Shirley, was relieved in late March and replaced by a new commander-in-chief, Lord Loudoun, who had little sympathy for colonial concerns. Major General James Abercromby, a British regular, took command of all colonial forces. Abercromby promptly ignored all counsel from his colonial officers and the colonial governors, creating more antagonism between the colonies and Great Britain.

What did William Johnson avoid and accomplish?

Governor Shirley, who took over a s commander-in-chief after Braddock's death, failed to attack Fort Niagara. Under temporary major general and superintendent of indigenous affairs for the northern colonies William Johnson, a force of 1,200 that was supposed to take Fort St. Frederic narrowly escaped a Braddock-like disaster at the southern end of Lake George in September 1755 to earn a minor victory in the Battle of Lake George. Rather than following up to destroy the French opposition and take his objective, however, Johnson regrouped an began building Fort William Henry. He quickly lost control of his ill-disciplined colonial troops, who wanted higher pay and to return home, costing Shirley opportunity and initiative.

What was la petite guerre?

His so-called la petite guerre was soon commonly known as guerrilla warfare.

Explain how Montcalm took Fort Oswego.

Ignoring Bradstreet's warning that Oswego was highly vulnerable, Abercromby was slow in sending Major General Daniel Webb to reinforce the garrison. Montcalm took the initiative and captured Oswego in August 1756 with little resistance. Indigenous allies of the French ambushed the British survivors who had been promised safe passage back to Albany. All of Lake Ontario was now under French control, as was the line of communication down to Fort Duquesne.

When was the the assault on Port Royal a success?

In 1710, Nicholson was ordered to command colonial forces and 500 British Marines to take Port Royal. Finally, this time, the expedition was successful. The French had downsized the garrison at Port Royal, and as a consequence they surrendered in October. A British regiment was sent to garrison the critical fortress. The colonies, elated with their success, wanted more. Canada seemingly lay before them. Nicholson returned to London to push the old Montreal--Quebec plan and was armed further with an offer from the colonial governors that the colonies would pay for British regulars. Nicholson would command the colonials against Montreal, and the British regulars would attack Quebec London agreed.

How did the French participate in this war?

In North America, the French also again indirectly initiated hostilities. The French perused a strategy of encirclement, hoping to strangle the English colonies along the Atlantic seaboard. Geographically, France was well on its way to achieving this objective de facto. From Port Royal near the mouth of the St. Lawrence River, around the Great Lakes to Fort Michilimackinac, and southward to the Gulf of Mexico at Biloxi and Mobile Bay, New France surrounded the British colonies and cut off Spanish Florida from New Spain (Mexico).

Explain how privateering was an effective strategy.

In addition to conventional military operations, privateering was another vital part of strategy in King George's War. The lure of windfall profits from capturing enemy transports and supply ships made it very easy to bring daring sailors and ship owners on board for the war effort. Such practice had a long tradition in the colonial game. The mysterious English settlement at Roanoke (1585-1590), never intended to be permanent, was actually a base to support operations of British privateers—also generally engaged in slavery—against Spanish shipping. Hundreds of colonial, British, French, and Spanish ships prowled the Caribbean and other waters in search of prey. Investors poured money into what they believed would offer an easy return. In fact, a single prize could bring an average return of 130 percent on the original investment. Ports such as New York and Charleston financially benefited from privateering efforts during the war. For the British, the success and popularity of privateering was a double-edged sword.

How did militia recruitments fulfill their enlistment quotas?

In attempting to fulfill their enlistment obligations, many colonies resorted to impressing vagabonds, thieves, and other undesirables to clear out their towns and cities of an unwanted population. While many volunteers served with distinction, the bad apples at the bottom of the barrel polluted the entire lot in the eyes of the British regulars. From the viewpoint of the colonials, the British regular army mistreated them in almost every military arena—colonists tended to get the most undesirable duty, most inferior equipment, most cramped quarters, most rotten food, and perhaps most significantly the harshest end of military justice.

Why was the St. Lawrence river important?

In colonial North America, geography played a crucial role in the imperial game. The St. Lawrence River provided the only waterway to the French settlements at Quebec and Montreal, the Great Lakes, and the Canadian interior. Guarding the entrance to the St. Lawrence River was the impressive French fortress at Louisbourg on Cape Breton Island. Whoever controlled Louisbourg easily controlled the river. Of more direct importance for the colonists of New England and New York was the Hudson River Valley, its northern lakes, and the Richelieu River, which connected the British colonies to French Canada. To the west lay the Appalachian Mountains, through which only a precious few gaps, the main one along the Mohawk River, allowed armies to pass.

What were the profound and lasting result of the war?

In colonial and military matters, the war had profound and lasting results. Pitt's attempt at reconciliation with the colonial administrations failed in part because the colonial assemblies took advantage of Pitt's generosity to further their own independence in military affairs. Colonial assemblies argued with Parliament over money, control, and prerogative concerning British regulars, whom they considered under their jurisdiction. This was especially the case concerning quartering troops, an issue on which the assemblies gradually took the lead. Since British regulars had rarely visited the American colonies before this conflict, few barracks existed. As a result, British commanders occasionally forced colonists to quarter troops in their homes. Quartering troops in private homes without the owner's consent violated the spirit of English law and tradition, and colonists would not soon forget the presence of British soldiers on their property. When Parliament attempted to impose quartering, the assemblies resisted.

What did the Indians receive in return for fur?

In exchange for valuable pelts, British and French traders quickly addicted the Indians to metal utensils, still knives, axes, mirrors, muskets, powder, lead for bullets, and a host of other goods with which Native Americans were unfamiliar before European contact.

How did mistreatment affect the morale of American soldiers?

In mid-April, the expedition left Cartagena and foolishly tried to attack Cuba. By the time the American Regiment returned home, only 600 men were alive. Bitter resentment deepened as colonial governments blamed British incompetence for the disaster, which left the colonies much weakened against Spanish or French encroachments and made protection against raids by Native Americans that much more difficult.

What happened in mid June?

In mid-June, Pepperell and his Royal Navy counterpart Commodore Peter Warren planned a joint land-sea assault to take the fortress, but the French preempted these plans by surrendering on June 17. Low on supplies and food, the garrison could carry on no more. Louisbourg was in British hands at last.

How did America respond to French advances?

In response to French advances along the Ohio frontier, the representatives from the various colonies met at Albany in 1754 to discuss military unification and the establishment of a centralized indigenous affairs bureau to coordinate pushing the French out of the Ohio Valley.

How else were Americans affected by these circumstances?

In yet another irony of the colonial wars, Captain Lawrence Washington survived only barely to return to his plantation along the Potomac River in Virginia in poor health. He renamed his farm Mount Vernon, honoring the admiral who so incompetently led the ill-fated expedition.

What did Webb request and order?

Incredibly, more than 4,000 hastily mobilized New England militia, requested in panic by Webb, suddenly arrived at Fort Edward just after Fort William Henry fell. In deciding not to move, Webb had little extra to feed and house this militia force, compelling him to send the militia home. For New England, mustering this massive force was yet another wasteful expense and money and manpower and only depended the fissures between the British Army and the colonies. It was the low point of the British war in North America.

Explain George Washington's experience with Braddock.

Indeed, George Washington, now a colonel in the Virginia militia, refused a temporary captain's commission from Braddock because he was, after all, a colonel. Still hoping for a more fitting commission in the British army, Washington served with Braddock as a civilian volunteer, hoping to earn the British general's good graces and be rewarded with the coveted officer's commission. Braddock, however, held no high opinion of colonial military capabilities, particularly those of militia offices, and loathed having to come out to the wilderness to clean up what he considered the colonists' mess.

What did Frontenac do instead of his plan on paper?

Instead, Frontenac mounted several raiding expeditions using small units on multiple fronts to harass and terrorize the English. His so- called la petite guerre was soon commonly known as guerrilla warfare. In the winter of 1690, Frontenac sent a force of 160 Canadians along with more than 100 indigenous allies on a three-prong attack against New England. From Montreal, the combined force would hit New York, New Hampshire, and Maine. As had become the custom in colonial warfare, the French and their indigenous allies slaughtered their enemies. At Schenectady, they killed more than 60 men, women, and children. Similar fates befell English colonists at Salmon Falls, New Hampshire, and Falmouth, Maine, where more than 100 people were killed after having been granted safe passage.

What necessary to maintain control of the New World?

Intra-colonial cooperation proved necessary for any future military adventure. With so much at stake in the imperial game, the colonies also realized that they needed more financial and military help from their mother country. Additionally, imperial growth and more permanent territorial security required that the French be removed from the North American scene, forcibly if necessary.

What happened to trade during this period?

It is essential to realize that for the British and French this situation took place within broader empires that incorporated possessions in the Caribbean, Africa, and southern Asia. Trade among these possessions created an elaborate financial network that required centralized regulation to balance regional deficits as well as increasingly costly navies and land forces to defend critical ports and far-flung colonies. The prevailing notion of imperial competition held that the only way to increase one's imperial might was to do so at the expense of one's imperial competitors. In other words, the imperial pie was finite; growing one's share of the pie meant taking slices from somebody else's empire.

What army was born in 1775?

It is indeed ironic that the colonies came away from the Great War for Empire believing that their ay of war had stood the test when it was, in fact, the British professional regulars who had organized an effective strategy, commanded the campaigns, and fought most of the battles. The victory that so greatly benefited the colonies had, in truth, been won by British know-how and experience. In fact, this same British army ultimately served as the model for the new American army that was born in 1775.

What did Dudley and Lord Lovelace think the only chance for success against Canada was?

It took until 1709 for Dudley and Lord Lovelace, the new governor of New York (which had finally decided to enter the fray), to convince the Board of Trade that the only chance for success against Canada was a combined colonial-regular campaign. It was the first time the Crown would send regular troops in force to British North America.

Explain how Braddock lead to Fort Duquesne.

It took weeks for Braddock's force and its long baggage train to cut a path through the thick forests. After slogging his way through miles of densely wooded hills-on its own a significant feat of logistics--Braddock ordered and accompanied part of his force forward to cross the Monogahela above Fort Duquesne. Poor reconnaissance allowed this advance force to walk right into an advance party of French regulars, Canadian militia, and their Native American allies. The British, in a tight but lengthy marching formation, were completely suprised by the smaller French force that had enveloped them. Because of the narrow path, the British rear bunched up against the forward position, causing panic and confusion. Braddock fell, mortally wounded. With many British officers killed or wounded, George Washington stepped in to cooly help much of the British force get out of the debacle and make its retreat.

How did the victory affect the stereotypes regarding British and American soldiers?

It was a great victory, to be sure, but one tainted by events that reinforced the stereotypes that colonial militia and British professional military men held regarding each other. On at least two occasions, land assaults had to be redirected or terminated because large numbers of militiamen were drunk. In another instance, militia successfully stormed an island battery without drawing artillery fire from the fort, but their drunken cheers awoke the French cannon. Sixty militiamen were killed and 119 captured in the French counterattack. From the standpoint of the Royal Navy, such behavior was preposterous and typical of the poorly trained and poorly led colonial rabble.

Explain why African Americans were recruited in the colonial militia.

Just as during the earlier Indian wars, African American men were prohibited from joining the militia. Or, at least, African-American men were unwelcomed until the colonies could not recruit enough white men to protect the colonial frontier. At that point, authorities turned a blind eye to the legal exclusions and enlisted whoever was available and willing, regardless of race. Initially, slaves were taken into the ranks, most of their wages and any death indemnity going to their owners. Official records offer very little information about such men, sometimes only a single name or the name of their master.

What was King George's War?

King George's War, named for King George II of Great Britain, was an extension of what was known as the War of Jenkins' Ear (1739-1748) between England and Spain and the War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748) pitting Great Britain and Austria against France, Prussia, and Spain.

What was Queen Anne's war?

Known in North America as Queen Anne's War, the conflict that broke out in the colonies in September 1702 was again part of a broader European conflict known as the War of the Spanish Succession.

What made the English colonists change their strategy?

Massive debt and a realization that individual colonies could no longer act unilaterally in military matters against the French, defensive or otherwise, forced the English colonies to reassess their strategic situation.

How did Lieutenant Colonel Eyre Massey push the French back to Quebec?

Meanwhile, at Fort Niagara, an impatient Lieutenant Colonel Eyre Massey, in command following the untimely death of Prideaux, ordered a hasty but successful assault. Participation by young Joseph Brant and several hundred warriors from the Iroquois Confederacy played a significant role in Massey's victory. The fort surrendered on July 23. Western Canada had now been cut from the St. Lawrence River. On the Lake Champlain front, the French abandoned Fort Ticonderoga and Fort St. Frederic to General Amherst in late July and retreated toward Quebec. By late summer, only Quebec remained, a symbolic heart keeping French Canada alive.

What happened when Lord Cumberland's government collapsed?

Meanwhile, in England, Lord Cumberland's government collapsed, enabling the very able and energetic William Pitt to take power and dramatically change British imperial strategy. Until that time, England took a Europe-first approach to imperial conflict. Pitt, however, had other ideas. Beginning in December 1756, when he came to power, and carrying through until late 1757, Pitt worked to change the strategic outlook of Great Britain's war plan despite strong opposition in Parliament (Pitt actually lost power in April 1757 before regaining control in June of that year). The result was a complete turnaround in the way Great Britain prosecuted the war. Pitt recognized that North America, rather than the European continent, was the key to the war if not the entire British imperial system. Holding France where it was strongest--on the European continent--would allow Great Britain to shift its might to strike France where it was weakest-Canada.

What did Montcalm do why Webb watched?

Montcalm hoped to finally realize a principal French strategic aim of the colonial wars—to control the waterways from the St. Lawrence, down the Richelieu River, Lake Champlain, Lake George, on to the southern end of the Hudson River, which would put French forces in the heart of New York. The ineptness of British commanders almost made this hope a reality. In early 1757, Webb went back out with 4,000 men and encamped at Fort William Henry, sitting idly by as Montcalm built up his French and Indian forces at nearby Fort Ticonderoga.

What affected the garrsion's morale?

Moreover, poor food, tedious duty, and homesickness infected the garrison's morale. The high hills to the west of the town provided an unhindered line of fire down onto the fortress. Despite its reputation and impressive fortifications, Louisbourg was vulnerable to attack, especially siege.

What did British officers think of colonials?

Moreover, the continuing conflict between British military authorities and colonial assemblies over enlistment quotas, money, materiel, and objectives left a bitter taste on both sides. Colonial assemblies felt threatened by what they perceived as an overt military threat to their governing prerogative, while British commanders such as Loudoun and Amherst were insulted by the impudent if not treasonous lack of deference to their command and judgment. British regulars stereotyped colonial volunteers as disorganized, undisciplined, and cowardly militia. Such a characterization completely misunderstood the American colonial militia system and its purpose of local defense.

What were New York and New England ordered to do?

New York and New England were ordered to use their own militia for defense and to fill large quotas for expeditionary forces. Only New York managed to fulfill the quota, and even then superficially because men deserted or quit service as soon as their brief enlistments expired. Officers had their problems, too—even the highest-ranking colonial officer had to answer to captains in the British army. Nonetheless, overall command of colonial forces remained with Lord Loudoun, even after he violated colonial enlistment regulations by trying to disband colonial units and enlist the individuals into regular British units.

How were New York and New England affected by Queen Anne's War?

New York managed to stay out of harm's way in this war, concluding an uneasy peace with the Iroquois Confederation. New England was not so fortunate and, as was becoming customary, suffered the brunt of conflict because of its geographic position.

How did this effect the colonials?

None trickled down to the colonials who helped win the fort and make such loot possible. Thus, while taking Louisbourg was a significant feat of arms and a long-awaited dream of the colonials, it did little to improve relations and perceptions between colonials and British regulars.

What did indigenous do after this defeat/

Not all of the indigenous peoples remained pacified, however. In the somewhat misnamed Pontiac's Rebellion, Ottawa, Seneca, Delaware, Iroquois, and Shawnee violently attacked the new British outposts in the west to take advantage of the French defeat. Before finally being put down, these loosely connected attacks killed more than 2,000 civilians as well as 400 British and colonial troops, and cost Native Americans untold losses from battle and disease.

Explain Bradstreet assault on Fort Frontenac.

Not wanting to incur Pitt's wrath for his failure at Ticonderoga, Abercromby sensibly gave Bradstreet the go-ahead to lead an oddly mixed force of fewer than 135 regular troops with substantially more than 2,000 colonials and 70 Iroquois warriors for an attack on Fort Frontenac on Lake Ontario. Bradstreet was no genius; nevertheless, he understood speed and logistics. Badly outnumbered and poorly supplied, the French had no chance against Bradstreet's force. Warned of the impending British approach, the French capitulated. Taking Fort Frontenac helped soften the disaster at Fort Ticonderoga, for without Fort Frontenac, the French supply line to Fort Niagara and Fort Duquesne was cut. For the first time, the British controlled Lake Ontario.

What did Braddock think of colonials?

Not without some justification, Braddock and his officers found the colonial expeditionary units lazy, poorly trained, and undisciplined--a rabble that slowed his progress and would lose the baggage were it not for the presence of the seasoned professional British Army officers. The British also did not like their colonial counterparts refusing to accept colonial militia and volunteer officers as equals. Clearly, ill feelings worked both ways, as egos got in the way of good sense.

Explain colonial America response to Frontenac's attack.

On May 1, 1690, representatives form the now-defunct Dominion of New England met in Albany to organize a joint campaign to invade Canada in response to Frontenac's attacks. Two land forces, from New York and New England, would simultaneously invade Canada. A naval force would support these attacks by driving down the St. Lawrence River. Once again, great plans had disappointing results.

What were the pros and cons of privateering?

On the one hand, privateering hurt the enemy and brought riches into increasingly strained colonial coffers. On the other, this same success and popularity took able seamen out of the available pool of sailors serving the Crown; for the Royal Navy, privateering meant increasing difficulty in finding experienced, worthy seamen to crew His Majesty's vessels. In the long term, the tradition of privateering helped give birth to an American navy during the War for Independence, and privateering's objective of individual gain for individual effort fit neatly into the independent attitude growing among many colonials.

How did the colonials again fail to show support of British troops?

Once again, the colonials failed to endear themselves to the British army. In addition to the ragged Pennsylvanians and Virginians, North Carolina sent an ill-equipped group of 300 men, while South Carolina and Maryland, seeing no advantage to participating in such an expedition, sent none. Once again, the colonies presented independent self-interest that highlighted their disunity in the face of crisis. Taxation, manpower, and regional security limited broader colonial vision, leaving the British army, and Forbes in particular, with a reinforced prejudice against colonial provincialism.

What did the French do after they discovered Braddock's plan and his defeat and death?

Papers found in the smoldering remains of Braddock's baggage train near Fort Duquesne reveled to the French the nature of his plan to attack French Canada. As a result, the French reinforced Fort Niagara and Fort St. Frederic and made plans to move on Fort Oswego on Lake Ontario. The Native American allies that Braddock had counted on to rally to the British never materialized because word spread of his death and defeat. Instead, they joined the French and raided up and down the Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania frontiers, killing more than 700 settlers. Pennsylvania again failed to organize militia and opted to pay settlers int eh far reaches to defend themselves. Thing look bleak, indeed. Other than the success in Nova Scotia, reverse after reverse hit the colonies and the British Army.

What happened when the Albany conference's plan did not follow through?

Pennsylvania provided no money at all, while the others offered disproportionate amounts at irregular intervals.

How did Pepperell's assault occur?

Pepperell's force laid siege to Louisbourg for 49 days. The French apparently never suspected an attack from the landward side of the fort; thus, they had faced their guns out to sea to defend against naval bombardment and protect the entrance to the bay and river. The New Englanders captured the Grand Battery, exploiting two unrepaired breaches in the battery's otherwise well-defended wall. With cannon they peppered the town and fort.

How did Wolfe take Quebec?

Quebec was the decisive theater for the war in North America, and the battle there placed Wolfe and Montcalm at the forefront of the pantheon of great generals of Anglo-French conflict. Both died during the climactic, European-style battle on the Plains of Abraham outside the city. Wolfe used stealth and amphibious operations to land a large force above Quebec, completely surprising Montcalm, who assumed the British would assault the town proper. On the Plains of Abraham, Montcalm hastily organized his French soldiers into line to meet the British head-on. Montcalm ordered a charge that was received by a well-disciplined British line that held its fire until the very last moment. The effect was devastating. Montcalm's attack was repelled within 15 minutes. Out of an initial force of 4,500, 200 French and French colonial troops lay dead, while another 1,200 were wounded. The British lost 60 killed with another 60 wounded. Quebec formally surrendered on September 18. More than 80 years of colonial warfare for control of North America had culminated in a European battle lasting little more than a quarter of an hour. France was finished in North America.

Explain siege warfare.

Siege warfare required the attacker to patiently dig a series of alternating parallel and approach trenches, slowly moving to within cannon range of the fortress walls. Once within range, siege cannon pounded the fortress walls, creating numerous breaches. The perfect siege, however, would not require a dangerous infantry attack into these breaches, for the besieged fortress would surrender, realizing that breached walls made defense futile. Typically, however, defenders did whatever they could to delay the unavoidable; musket and artillery fire and small harassing raids on the 'sappers' could only temporarily stop the digging. Vauban had concluded that a properly invested siege would bring a fortress to its knees in 40 days. Louisbourg took six weeks. By July 26, Louisbourg had fallen. Amherst and Wolfe had conducted one of the more effective Vauban sieges in history.

What was the result of South Carolina's attempt to take Spanish Penascola?

South Carolina's attempts to take Spanish Pensacola met with failure in 1707, as did forays into Alabama to engage the French garrison at Mobile. Logistical requirements limited whatever chance of success these expeditions had, and without the full support of local Native Americans, they really had no chance at all.

How did New England respond from this conflict?

Stirred by Puritan sermons, New Englanders lashed out at the local indigenous population, often disregarding attempts to discern friend from foe. Leadership failed early. Massachusetts Governor Joseph Dudley, for example, alienated the remaining local tribes and made little effort to find peace with the dangerous Abnaki. A conference in June 1703 promised peace, but English contempt toward Native Americans drove them again into the waiting arms of the French.

Describe the Albany Plan.

The Albany Plan of Union outlined such a collaborative effort, including the raising of regiments and commissioning of officers, but failed to receive the blessing of any of the colonial assemblies. Like previous efforts, this try at unification failed.

Describe the conditions of American comrades from the British.

The British professionals treated their American comrades in arms with unabashed contempt, assigning them the worst duties, poorest quarters, and most putrid rations. The campaign was a complete and utter disaster, encountering not only fierce Spanish opposition but also spring rains. Soldiers who survived the assaults against Spanish positions met an even stiffer foe in yellow fever, which killed hundreds.

What was the lesson learned by the English colonies?

The English colonies had learned a hard lesson. Despite their loyalty to the king, they could not count on the Crown to protect them. Only a small handful of troops from England made their way to English North America. Their contribution was negligible. The colonists believed that the stakes were high in North America, and their new monarch had let them down. The colonists had to defend themselves, and whatever offensive campaigns they deigned to attempt had to come from colonial rather than Crown resources.

Who was the French new commander?

The French also received a new commander that May. The Marquis de Montcalm arrived in Canada to take over French regular and colonial forces just as England formally declared war on France. Like Frontenac years before, Montcalm was appalled at what he found in Canada— corruption in the colonial administration, incompetence at all levels, and no strategic direction for the hostilities in North America. Montcalm's hands would always be tied, however, because he was subordinate to Canada's corrupt and ambitious governor, the Marquis de Vaudreuil.

What were the French forts built?

The French built a series of forts, erecting each one progressively southward from Lake Erie. Fort Presque Isle, Fort Le Boeuf, and Fort Machault followed French Creek to the Allegheny River.

How did the French respond to the formation of the Ohio River?

The French could not let such a strategic post stand; they promptly ousted the Virginians and built Fort Duquesne.

What happened when the French did not withdraw?

The French would not withdraw, forcing Dinwiddie and the British government to take the initiative in 1755. This time London would not leave the matter to the colonials, sending Major General Edward Braddock and two under-strength Irish regiments to Virginia to take Fort Duquesne.

What was the Great War?

The Great War for Empire was the first worldwide war involving the imperial powers, and it began in North America. While fought for the same strategic reasons as the previous colonial conflicts, this war--known as the French and Indian War in America and as the Seven Years War in Europe--would be fought in an entirely different way while confirming old assumptions and prejudices.

What did Commodore Warren insist on doing to trick the French?

The Royal Navy, however, also let down the colonials. After taking the fort, Commodore Warren insisted on leaving the French flag flying at Louisbourg to trick French ships into entering the harbor. It worked. Prizes quickly totaled more than £1 million, half of which went to the English Crown and the other to the Royal Navy's officers and crews that captured the ships.

How did the war escalate?

The accession of Mary II and William III of Orange to the throne of England as a result of the Glorious Revolution of 1688 and the expansionist tendencies of Louis XIV of France initiated war in Europe and intensified the colonial conflict between Protestant England and Catholic France in North America.

What was the result of this plan?

The assault on Port Royal led by William Phips was the highlight, but his march on Quebec met not only French resistance but also smallpox. Neither side could marry its strategically ambitious objectives to its extremely limited resources. Phips lost Port Royal, and for the next five years, both sides resorted to guerrilla war, staging raids and counter-raids that further exhausted both sides.

How did the Indian wars help the colonies?

The colonial wars that culminated in the Great War for Empire had a profound effect on the American colonies, shaping colonial attitudes toward civil-military relations, civil liberties, intra-colonial cooperation, and even unity. Colonial wars also influenced already maturing concepts of colonial warfare, relations with Native Americans, and American exceptionalism.

Did the colonies try to take Port Royal again/

The colonies tried again, this time meeting in Rhode Island. New York did not take part, but representatives from Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Connecticut, and Rhode Island agreed to petition for an attack on Port Royal. They wanted to move immediately to take advantage of the presence of a few Royal Navy ships nearby, but the captains of these vessels refused to help without orders from Nicholson's superiors. Instead, the colonies sent Nicholson to London to ask again for help.

How did Pitt's plan work out with Abercromby, Amherst and John Forbes?

The colonists certainly desired a change in the Crown's attitude toward them after the failed attempt on Louisbourg and the loss of Fort William Henry in 1757. Pitt recalled Loudoun in December 1757, replacing him with General Abercromby. Massachusetts Governor Thomas Pownall praised Pitt's new approach to colonial affairs and, with the enthusiastic support of the Massachusetts Assembly, authorized a new army of 7,000 volunteers. New campaigns signaled renewed offensives against French Canada in 1758. General Geoffrey Amherst carried Pitt's banner to take Louisbourg, while Brigadier General John Forbes was entrusted with an attack on Fort Duquesne. Abercromby led a force of 16,000 in July 1758 to invest Fort Ticonderoga. Abercromby split his army, failed to wait for his artillery, and showed little imagination in his repeated frontal assaults against Montcalm's well-entrenched and well-reinforced French fort. What appeared to be assured defeat for the French—they were prepared to beat a hasty retreat to Fort St. Frederic—turned out to be a stunning victory. Abercromby turned tail and retreated to Albany.

Explain how this war erupted in America.

The conflict began in North America in 1754, well before the general war broke out in Europe and elsewhere between Britain and France. King George's War had left Britain in tenuous control of the lucrative and fertile Ohio Valley, using its sovereignty over the Iroquois as a pretext to lay claim to the extravagant colonial charters that asserted ownership of territory all the way across the continent. France, of course, laid claim to these same lands. With few troops and fewer outposts, both played a game centered on who could establish and hold a fort deeper into the other's claimed territory. In British North America, this time the Chesapeake colonies, Pennsylvania, and New York played the role of antagonists instead of New England. Speculators from these colonies began exploring the earnest into the Ohio Valley, forcing the French, who clung to the strategy of encirclement, to establish forts to stem British intrusion and lure the Indians caught in between into the French camp.

What was needed to establish all of the "pie"?

The drain on imperial treasuries from these wars took longer and longer to recover, leading some among the British and French governments to urge a lasting military resolution to the imperial game. Believing the continuation of these colonial wars too costly in the long term, what was needed, they argued, was a final war for all of the pie rather than another fight for a mere slice.

What happened to Edmund Andros expedition?

The expedition, however, fell victim to winter, and Andros fell victim to the Protestant revolt against the Catholic King James II.

Describe Braddock's experience when he came to North America.

The experience Braddock came to North America with preconceived notions of colonials, their military prowess, and how to deal with the French and Native Americans. He considered his colonial colleagues as amateur adventurers who had no clue as to how to organize and command a military campaign. Not surprisingly, Braddock got off on the wrong foot with colonial administrations when they refused to provide a common defense fund to cover Braddock's military expenses despite their offer to do so at the Albany conference in 1754.

How did the Fall of Fort Duquesne top of a remarkable British turnaround?

The fall of Fort Duquesne topped off the remarkable British turnaround in 1758. The French garrison at Fort Duquesne, under the command of Francois-Marie le Marchand de Lignery, was small, poorly supplied, and under strained relations with its indigenous allies. Brigadier General John Forbes had been charged to lead the British expedition to Fort Duquesne. Forbes had to overcome many obstacles just to get the expedition on its way. Basing the campaign in Pennsylvania, Forbes and the Pennsylvania assembly butted heads over logistical and manpower matters. They finally reached a compromise that opened the colony's store of arms and ammunition to the British and required Pennsylvania to raise a regiment of 2,700 volunteers for the campaign. Native American troubles also hampered British preparations because well-intentioned, Quaker-supported peace initiatives muddied Forbes's negotiations with the Iroquois, Cherokee, and Catawba intended to convince the tribes to join the campaign. In the end, the Treaty of Easton settled few issues except to ease relations among the rival Indians and secure their allegiance to the British Crown.

Describe the first major colonial conflict.

The first major colonial conflict coincided with the Glorious Revolution of 1688-1689 in England. What became King William's War began in 1688 in North America with French-supported Abnaki (a French corruption of the Algonquian name Wabanaki) raids on English settlements in Maine. New England governor Edmund Andros had ordered an expeditionary force of 1,000 volunteers and draftees to drive the Abnaki back into French Canada.

Explain the long term repercussions of this major war.

The long-term repercussions of this major war could not have been told at its end, but in little more than a decade later, the colonials rose up in rebellion against mother Britain.

What was the major conflict of the war?

The major conflict of the war, not surprisingly, centered on the entrance to the St. Lawrence River. The French failed in an attempted assault on Port Royal, which the British had renamed Annapolis Royal in late 1744. In 1745, the British set their sights on Louisbourg, the principal thorn in their side that had long ensured the survival of French Canada. At the behest of Governor William Shirley, Massachusetts organized a huge—by colonial standards—expedition to take Louisbourg.

How did New England feel about fort louisbourg?

The one thing that seemed to secure the inevitable end of French Canada, control of the St. Lawrence River, had been lost in some faraway negotiation. New Englanders felt betrayed, to put it mildly. They had, after all, taken the fort without the help of the British Army and in their minds with only nominal support from the British Navy. For the home government simply to return the fort as if it were of little consequence only reinforced among colonists already deep suspicions about their mother country.

How did the British troops in New England influence colonials in that region?

The presence of large numbers of British troops, particularly in New England and the middle colonies, brought colonists unaccustomed to a military presence into close contact with regular British forces. The British army relied heavily upon recruiting colonials into regular regiments, but questionable recruiting methods made service distasteful to many colonists and caused petty but long-lasting rifts between British authorities and the communities from which they recruited. Indentured servants were a prime target of recruiters, a fact that aggravated colonists who considered indentures to be legally binding contracts. The British army, in essence, was undermining a contractual obligation and a long-standing, although dwindling, source of labor.

What is the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle?

The treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ended hostilities in October 1748, which for North America meant early spring 1749 because of communication delays. To the shock and disappointment of the colonists, Great Britain traded Louisbourg and Cape Breton Island to France to regain Madras in India.

Explain how what treaty ended the Great War for Empire.

The treaty of Paris (1763) formally ended the Great War for Empire. The French imperial system was neutered, losing all its possessions in North America. Great Britain was now the unquestioned ruler of the high seas and an imperial superpower. Spain's late entry into the war against France was rewarded with French Louisiana. But the initial euphoria of victory soon wore thin for the Crown's loyal subjects in both Britain and the colonies. Taxes had reached unprecedented levels, yet the British treasury lay barren. His Majesty's army and navy now had to defend an empire twice as vast as it had been in 1754.

How did the war end?

The war in Europe and North America ended in September 1697 with the Treaty of Ryswick, through which all gains reverted to status quo ante bellum. In North America, casualties were relatively light compared to those in earlier conflicts with Native Americas.

What did these events lead to?

These events took place amidst yet another European conflict over royal succession, this time over the Austrian throne. It did not take much for this conflict to spill over into North America. Once again, Great Britain was pitted against Spain and France, and for the British colonies, Canada remained the strategic objective. For the most part, King George's War was a guerrilla war that inflicted only light casualties, conducted mildly destructive raids, and mounted small but failed campaigns. Ever-unlucky Deerfield, Massachusetts, was again on the receiving end of an assault. The strategic contours were similar to those in previous wars, including a British desire to conquer Canada, a French wish to divide and weaken the British colonies, and the desire of both to exploit Native American alliances against the other.

How did the Colonist feel after fighting alongside the British?

These perceptions were all but confirmed for the colonists during the colonial wars, in which colonists proved their mettle against French and Spanish regulars, demonstrated an ability to think strategically, and established concrete notions of civil-military relations under colonial conditions. Their extraordinary but disappointing experience fighting alongside their British brethren left the colonies with lingering resentment. Selective memory held the citizen-soldier in much higher esteem than the professional regular. Still, the American colonists generally never fully appreciated that the security interests of the British Empire extended beyond the colonies' own immediate security needs.

How did they affect other countries in the New World?

These wars were unique, as the strategic objectives of the warring powers in the Old World often did not match those of English ('British' after the 1707 Acts of Union), French, and Spanish colonists in the New World. In essence, although they were often fighting the same war, their reasons for doing so just as often differed.

What would need to happen for Pitt's plan to work?

To achieve his strategic aims, Pitt first had to repair the damaged relationship between Great Britain and its North American colonies. Knowing that the colonies had been regarded as unruly and undisciplined subordinates, Pitt began to treat them as valued allies in a common cause. He rescinded military authority over colonial governors and assemblies, restoring the traditional administrative chain of command that came from the British secretary of state for colonial affairs down to the governors and assemblies. In addition to acquiring financial subsidies from the colonies to support the colonial war effort instead of forcing the colonies to contribute levies, Pitt hoped that restoring a degree of autonomy to the colonies would induce rather than compel colonial cooperation and, indeed, patriotism. In 1758, he went even further to address poor relations between colonial forces and the British army by decreeing that all colonial officers would be treated as equals to their British regular equivalents rather than as subordinates. This was a significant change for the colonists, and Pitt's recognition of the problem went a long way toward rebuilding colonial trust and confidence in his plan for victory over France.

What happened to Forbes during this event?

To add to his troubles, Forbes fell desperately ill and had to be carried by litter to Carlisle. There, he found confusion: the supply train was in disarray; colonial 'volunteers' from Pennsylvania and Virginia were the most ragged lot Forbes had ever seen. An emboldened Colonel George Washington of Virginia pleaded with Forbes to use Braddock's Road to approach Fort Duquesne. Instead, Forbes decided to cut his own road through western Pennsylvania.

How did the war begin and where did it go?

To kick off this convoluted conflict in America, Georgia's ambitious founder James Oglethorpe led an invasion of Florida in 1740. Indigenous allies, as was the norm, played a significant role, as Chickasaw, Creek, and Cherokee attacked Spanish missions and settlements in western Florida while Oglethorpe's force attempted to take St. Augustine. The plan resulted in a stalemate. For three years, raids and counter-raids resulted in little progress for the Georgians. South Carolina offered no help. Oglethorpe withdrew his force from near St. Augustine in 1743 when a Spanish fleet threatened his long and tenuous line of communication back to his Georgia colony. Also, as part of this conflict with Spain, there occurred one of the worst disasters involving American arms. The Royal Navy developed an elaborate plan to take the Spanish port at Cartagena with a fleet of Royal Navy warships and a large force of colonials to supplement ground operations. The call for volunteers went out in 1740, with most colonies offering bounties and promises of pirate-like loot. Eleven colonies sent 36 companies of 100 men each, making up what was called the American Regiment, commanded by Virginia Governor William Gooch. Because most of the officers were also American colonists, military relations between the colonists and British professionals were taking an unprecedented approach. The regiment met the fleet, commanded by Admiral Edward Vernon, and British Army units, commanded by General Thomas Wentworth, in Jamaica. Their combined forces totaled more than 9,000 men.

What was the plan to take Canada?

Two battalions of regulars along with six warships would join 1,500 volunteers from New York, New Jersey, and (for the first time) Pennsylvania. New England promised to send a 1,000-man force. The plan was for a two-prong attack on Canada: the first prong, which included the 1,500 troops from New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania under the command of former governor of Virginia Colonel Francis Nicholson, would leave from Albany and attack Montreal; the other prong, made up of New Englanders, would embark from Boston to join the British regulars against Quebec.

What reinforcement were sent under the command of William Pepperell?

Under the command of William Pepperell, 3,000 Massachusetts, 500 Connecticut, and 450 New Hampshire militia, along with cannon from New York, a ship from Rhode Island, and provisions from Pennsylvania and New Jersey, made up the most significant intra-colonial expeditionary force to date. The Royal Navy provided one 60-gun warship and three 40-gun warships. Their target was the fortress at Louisbourg, which was now a well-built, formidable Vauban fortification that some called the 'Gibraltar of the New World.' Its 30-foot-high walls were lined with more than 250 cannon. Intelligence reports, however, noted weaknesses, namely that only 100 of the guns were actually in place.

Explains Forbes campaign.

Under these circumstances, Forbes forged ahead, as his men painstakingly cut a road toward the French outpost. Rain, mud, desertions, and supply problems harried Forbes and his men throughout the campaign. The French were in equally bad straits but found brief success on the battlefield by defeating a British reconnoitering party of 800 men, which was surprised that the French attacked instead of remaining inside the fort. Still, French commander Lignery had to take excessive risks to defend the post. He tried a preemptive raid on Forbes' advance column on October 12, but the assault failed and lost Lignery his Native American allies, who saw little point in the endeavor. Fewer than 1,000 French soldiers remained to face the 5,000 British. Low on supplies and morale, the French decided to withdraw on November 24, burning Fort Duquesne to the ground before moving to Fort Machault.

How did Virginia and Pennsylvania spend their money?

Virginia and Pennsylvania spent their money in building defensive forts along their frontiers to defend against French-Native Americans raids. These forts, which were expensive to build, garrison, and maintain, left little money to contribute to the overall effort.

Who did Robert Dinwiddie send to stop the French?

Virginia's Robert Dinwiddie took great umbrage at this insulting show of bravado and with the blessing of the British government, sent a young militia officer named George Washington and a regiment of Virginia militia to force the French to withdraw. The expedition was ultimately defeated by the French after a brief battle at a crudely constructed Fort Necessity in a clearing known as the Great Meadows in southwestern Pennsylvania. Surrounded, soaked by heavy rains, and with many wounded, Washington surrendered. Washington's not-so-glorious introduction to military command helped set in motion a series of events that started a war.

What did Virginians build to form the Ohio River?

Virginians built a small stockade where the Allegheny and Monogahela rivers meet to form the Ohio River.

What happened in Nova Scotia?

What followed in Nova Scotia eerily resembled ethnic cleansing efforts of the more recent past. Many French Acadians refused to take a loyalty oath to the British Crown. he British governor of Nova Scotia, Charles Lawrence, distrusted Acadians who did accept allegiance and ordered the entire population deported. Close to 7,000 were eventually dispersed among other colonies and Louisiana. They were allowed to take only what they could carry, sometimes nothing at all. The British destroyed their homes and the dikes they had built to contain the saltwater tides, and then attacked the Micmac tribe who had been friendly to the French. Many issues motivated the expulsion of the Acadians, including thinning out Catholic influence amongst the British Protestant majority and opening Acadia to new British colonization. Nevertheless, removing an entire civilian population was an unprecedented act by one European colonial power against another.

How did Dudley fail again?

What looked so grand on paper quickly fell apart in the field. The Pennsylvania men never showed up. The British fleet carrying the regulars failed to appear. Nicholson departed Albany in May, slowly cutting a road to Lake Champlain. By September, with no sign of the promised British troops, Nicholson was ordered to stand down and demobilize. In October, word reached the colonies that the decision had been made in England in late May to abandon the expedition; thus, no British troops would be sent to the colonies. Had the colonies kept an agent or representative in London, they would undoubtedly have received this incredibly important news much sooner. They would not make this mistake again.

What happened when Montcalm moved?

When he finally decided to move, he went down the road to Fort Edward, leaving Lieutenant Colonel George Monro with 2,400 men to face Montcalm's 9,000 regulars and Indian allies. On August 9, Monro had little choice save capitulation, as his men were wracked with disease and without food. Webb made no effort to trek the ten miles to save Monro. Once again, warriors ignored the guarantee of safe passage and attacked Monro's men as they left Fort William Henry. The exact number of massacred soldiers, families, and camp followers is unknown, but estimates range from 200 to 1,500. The French stood by and did nothing to stop the murder. They may, in fact, have encouraged it, using the Native Americans to spread terror in the northern British colonies.

Explain what John Winslow and Robert Monckton did while Braddock met disaster.

While Braddock met disaster at Fort Duquesne, a Massachusetts force of 2,000 militia under John Winslow and some British regulars under the command of Brigadier General Robert Monckton set sail in May 1755 for Nova Scotia to secure Fort Beauséjour. The force landed at Fort Lawrence, on the British side of the vague boundary that separated British Nova Scotia from French Acadia. When Winslow and Monckton arrived at Fort Beauséjour, they found the fort ready to give up. A British agent provocateur named Thomas Pinchon had convinced the French garrison that resistance was futile. After a brief and mostly phony siege of four days, the French capitulated. On June 17, the British quickly took nearby Fort Gaspereau. The British now controlled Nova Scotia, except for the perinnial thorn that was Louisbourg.

Explain the battles that still occurred after the surrender.

While a few more battles occurred—namely, along Lake Champlain and, incredibly, a failed French siege of Quebec—the British were content to consolidate their hard-won gains during the winter of 1759- 1760. Amherst assaulted Montreal in September 1760, forcing Governor Vaudreuil to surrender the whole of Canada. Detroit fell to Major Robert Roger's famous Roger's Rangers that same month, solidifying Britain's hold on the French province and swiftly gaining the allegiance of Native Americans who had forsaken the French.

Explain the fate of Fort Louisbourg defenders by Pitt.

With Fort William Henry in fresh memory, however, Amherst and Wolfe refused the honors of war to the Louisbourg defenders. Wanting to avoid revenge for those slaughtered after the fall of Fort William Henry, Amherst closed Louisbourg to plunder. Also, although Amherst deported Louisbourg's residents to France—a fate similar to the Acadians' in 1755—he allowed them to keep their possessions. French soldiers were made prisoners and sent to England to sit out the rest of the war. Pitt wanted Louisbourg as much as any other prize in North America. He had every intention of keeping the fort in postwar treaty negotiations, a much easier task with the fortress in British hands. Pitt also wanted to end French harassment of British shipping and open the Grand Banks to the British fishing industry. With Louisbourg under British control, the Prime Minister could achieve all of these objectives.

How did the English colonies respond to a Spain and France alliance?

With Spain and France alien against England, the South Carolina legislature formed an expedition to seize St. Augustine, Florida, in September 1702. The expedition failed to take the formidable fortress there but contented itself with burning and destructive looting in the town, then withdrew. For the next few years, various expeditions from South Carolina, along with Chickasaw allies, raided with sporadic success along the Florida panhandle, threatening French Louisiana. These raids tended to avoid Spanish and French strongholds and concentrated instead on weakly defended Catholic missions. The French, however, had reliable indigenous allies of their own, including the Choctaw and Creek, who prevented a force led by South Carolina Governor James Moore from invading Louisiana in July 1704.

What happened to Dudley's assault on port royal?

With no plunder, no action, and little to occupy the troops' idle time, conditions quickly deteriorated. March decided to abandon the siege, but Dudley commanded him to return and engaged the French. With an additional 100 men from Maine and a frigate, the expedition attacked Port Royal in August. The French had also received reinforcements and were able to hold off the New Englanders' disorganized attacks . March withdrew again. Officers on the expedition blamed one another for the adventure's failure. It was not a model intra-colonial effort by any means.

What was Pitt's plan to isolate western Canada?

With success won, Pitt had vital political support for the final conquest of Canada. He proposed a tidy plan to isolate western Canada from the St. Lawrence River by taking Fort Niagara and reinforcing Fort Oswego. British and colonial forces would simultaneously drive into the St. Lawrence Valley via Lake Champlain, a movement that would place the British at the gates of Quebec. By July 1759, British forces under Brigadier General John Prideaux were laying siege to the French garrison at Fort Niagara. In June, an army of more than 9,000 under the command of British General James Wolfe approached Quebec from the north shore of the St. Lawrence River, probing for weaknesses in the city's defenses. Montcalm, in command at Quebec, began a long and tedious game of cat and mouse with Wolfe, trying to outwit and outlast his British opponent. Wolfe initiated a siege that lasted until September.

What happened to the demand for trade during this time?

With the Native Americans dependent on European goods and the British and French just as dependent on profits from the fur trade, the stakes for controlling the trade skyrocketed.

What was Pitt's plan to conquer France?

he Royal Navy would have to take firm control of the Atlantic and thereby strangle French supply lines to North America. Additionally, the British Army would have to be reinforced in North America. Moreover, Great Britain would have to rely much more heavily than ever before on the cooperation of volunteer colonial forces in joint campaigns aimed at conquering French Canada. By attacking the sources of French wealth—Canada, French colonies in Africa, India, and the West Indies—Pitt saw a way to bring France to its knees. Victory over France would leave Great Britain as lord and master of the world's imperial system.