Chapter 23
Mass society
-Patterns in industrial production, mass consumption and working class organization that we identify with a Second Ind. Rev. = only 1 aspect of new Mass society that emerged in Europe after 1870. -Larger more improved urban environment, new patterns of social structure, gender issues, mass edu and mass leisure= important features in European society. - A society in which prosperity and bureaucracy have weakened traditional social ties. - An urban environment, new patterns of social structure, gender issues, mass education, and mass leisure all factor in.
Women and work, sweatshops and "sweating", white-collar jobs
2ed Industrial Rev=huge impact of position of women in labor market -controversy over women's "right to vote" Working class organizations= underlying ideology of domesticity=women should remain at home to bear and nurture children and should not be allowed in the workforce. Working class men thought keeping women out of work= insure moral and physical well being of the family. -realistically it just made it easier to exploit them when they needed income to supplement their husband's wages and support their families when husbands were unemployed. pieceworkers=poorly paid and long hours. Sweatshops- Women were forced into marginal work at home or labor as pieceworkers. Usually tailored cloth and was done at home and poorly paid because it didn't require many skills or equipment. White-Collar jobs-After 1870 new job opportunities for women - Government service jobs-relatively low wages and eventually hired women. -Used as clerks, typists, secretaries, file clerks, and sales clerks. -Also eventually allowed an increase in nurses. -Had to be able to read a little.
Spread of industrialization
After 1870, industrialization began to spread beyond West and central Europe and North America. -Rapid development of Russia and Japan -In Japan, the imperial government took lead in promoting industry. Government financed industries, built railroads, brought foreign experts to train Japanese employes in new industrial techniques and instituted universal educational system based on applied science. -End of 19th century, Japan developed key industries in tea, silk, armaments and shipbuilding. -Workshops for these industries came from people who had abandoned their farms because of of hardships and traveled to cities where they provided abundant source of cheaper labor.
Social classes of the mass society
After 1871, average person enjoyed increased standard of living -Real wages for Britain doubled. -Great poverty still existed in West society and the the economic gap between rich and poor was enormous. -5% of population controlled 30-40% of wealth. Lower Class= 80% of Europeans Urban workers did not experience real betterment in material conditions of lives after 1871.
Constitution of 1875, Boulanger Crisis
Although majority of members of monarchist dominated National Assembly wished to restore monarchy to France, inability to agree on who=king caused them to miss opportunity and led in 1875 to improvised constitution that had established a republican form of government as least divisive compromise. Constitution established a bicameral legislature with increased house and senate elected indirectly and decrease house Chamber of Deputies chosen by universal male suffrage a president elected by legislature for 7 years= executive government. Constitution of 1875- intended only as a stop gap measure solidified the Third Republic and new elections in 1877 strengthened hands of republicans who managed to institute ministerial responsibilities and establish power of Chamber of Deputies. -Major crisis in 1880s strengthened republican government. General georges Boulanger- popular military officer who attracted public attention of all those discontented w Third Republic the monarchists, Bonapartists, aristocrats, nationalists who favored war of revenge against Germany.
Anarchism, Mikhail Bakunin
Anarchism-Elected in Germany on the basis of universal male suffrage but didn't have ministerial responsibility. Michael Bakunin- Believed that well trained small groups of people would be more of a threat to the government. This was a perfect idea for the anarchists-would become the golden age. Didn't want any form of government at all.
Population growth, emigration
Between 1850-1910- Cause increase birthrate in Western Europe and decline in death rates in 1880. Decline in death rates because of medical discoveries and environmental conditions. Greatly improved nutrition and environment- better facilities. Better hygiene
William II
Bismarck wanted to pass more laws to subdue the socialists but before they were carried out Czar William II was the new emperor and was eager to make his own policies. Kicked out Bismarck. Representative and social welfare measures failed to stop increase of socialism. Social democratic party continued to grow. Bismarck planned more repressive measure in 1890 but before he could carry them out, the new emperor William II eager to pursue own policied, cashiered the aged chancellor.
William Gladstone, Reform Act of 1884, Redistribution Act
Britain and France saw expansion of right to vote but liberal reforms were less successful in Spain and Italy. -1871 Britain was functioning with 2 political party systems and growth of political democracy which was one of preoccupations of politics. Its cause pushed along the expansion of suffrage. Advanced by the Reform Act of 1867 the right to vote=further extended during the second ministry of William Gladstone passage of Reform acts of 1884. Reform Act of 1884-Gave the right to vote to all men who paid regular rents or taxes. Greatly increased agricultural workers and also later eliminated the boroughs. Made constituencies with about equal populations and one representative each. Made the House of Commons become even more democratized.
"The woman question", marriage, birthrates, "family planning"
Catch phrase to refer to the debate over the role of women in society. -19th century women= legally inferior, economically dependent and largely defined by family and household roles. -Many still aspired the ideal of femininity popularized by writers and poets -Traditional characterisation of scenes based on gender= defined social roles=elevated status of universal male and female attributes in the late 19th century because of impact of industrial Rev. on family. Idea did not equal reality in lower classes= decreased income= women join sweatwork. Marriage and Domesticity- Middle class glorified ideal of domesticity but marriage= often economic necessity Lack of meaningful work and decreased wages= hard for single women to earn a living. Retiring to covenants as in past was not an option. They had to marry or be domestic servants Increased marriage rates and decreased illegitimacy rates in 19th century Birth rates and birth control -Decreased number of offspring born to modern family - Change in attitude- parents deliberately limit number of babies ad abortion and infanticide and abandonment - Authorities prosecuted individuals that said contraception was depriving public morals. Amsterdam- 1st birth control clinic by Dr. Aletta Jacob. Initially "family planning"= suggestion of reformers who though poverty could be solved by reducing number of children in lower classes. Spread among propertied classes. Family Planning-suggestion of reformers to reduce the number of children in the lower classes to reduce the issue of poverty. Spread to all social groups. Beginning of condoms.
France's Third Republic
Defeat of France by Prussian army in 1870s=downfall for Louis Napoleon's 2ed Empire. French republics initially set up provisional government but Otto Von Bismarck intervened and forced French to choose government based on universal male suffrage. French to choose republicans and favored monarchists In response March 1871, radical republicans formed an independent republican government in paris known as the commune.
Reichstag, limits on democracy
Despite unification of Germany, important divisions remained in German society that could not simply be pampered by force of nationalism. -These divisions were already evident in new German constitution that provided for a federal system with a bicameral legislature. -The Bundesrat upper house represented 25 states that made up Germany. -Individual states such as Bavaria Prussia elected on universal male suffrage but did not have ministerial responsibility. Elected in Germany on the basis of universal male suffrage but didn't have ministerial responsibility. -Ministers of government were responsible to emper not parliament Emperor also commanded armed forces and controlled foreign policy and internal administration. Through creation of parliament by universal male suffrage presented opportunities for growth of real political democracy and failed to develop in Germany before WWI because army and Bismark. German army viewed itself as defender of monarchy and aristocracy and sought to escape any control of Reichstag by operating under generate staff responsible to only emperor. -Prussian military tradition= strong and military officers ensured loyalty to emperor -As growth of army it was necessary for middle class officers to take care in choosing who.
Eduard Bernstein, Evolutionary Socialism
Eduard Bernstein-Got ideas from moderate English socialism and parliamentary system. Challenged Marxist orthodoxy with his book:Evolutionary Socialism. Said that the middle class was expanding not declining contrary to Marx's theories. Proletariat was improving as workers experienced a higher position and the workers had a higher standard of living. Didn't call for a revolution and class struggle like Marx did. Ideas were considered heresy.
Depression, la belle epoque
Emergence of basic economic patterns-characterized European economic life -Period after 1871=age of material prosperity, recessions crisis was a large part of economic life. Through some historians question appropriateness of characterizing Europe and the Great Depression, Europeans experienced a series of economic crisis during those years. -Prices, especially agricultural products plummeted. -Slumps in business cycle decreased profits -France and Britain in 1880s while Germany and USA recovered in 1870s. La belle epoque- 1895-WW1 europe experienced an economic boom or golden age -German Industrial Leadership -European Economic zones
Assembly line
Formation of Cartels= the move towards larger factories, especially iron and steel, machinery, heavy electrical equipment and chemical industries- mostly Germany 1882-1907 number of German workers in factories dramatically increased. -Growth in size meant greater pressure for greater efficiency at same time. -1st used in the US then introduced to Europe in the 1850s. Precision tools enabled manufacturers to make interchangeable parts which led to the assembly line for production. Faster production for cheaper prices
New markets, tariffs, cartels
Growth of Industrial production depended on the development of markets for sale of manufactured goods. -After 1870, best foreign markets=heavily saturated. -Europe's=richest consumers in the world, many possibilities. -Large population increase in 1870s=steady rise in national incomes. -1850-1900 wages increased by ⅔ in Britain and ⅓ in Germany This allowed Europeans to spend more money on consumer products. *Businesses used new techniques of mass marketing to sell consumer goods made possible by the steel and electrical industries. Tariffs and Cartels: -increased competition for foreign markets and increase importance of domestic demand. This lead to reaction against free trade. -Too many industrial and political leaders protective tariffs guaranteed domestic markets for the products of their own industries. Cartels-Formed to decrease internal competition. Independent companies worked together to control prices and fix production quotas-no competition that led to reduced prices, Especially popular in Germany-banks used it to benefit themselves.
Working-class family life
Hard work= standard fare for women in working class families -Daughters were expected to work until married and after married= piecework at home to help support family. -High paying jobs in heavy industry which increased the standard of living= possible for working class families to depend on husbands income. -Improvements in public health and advances in medicine and better diet= decreased infant mortality rates for lower classes. Noticeable in cities after 1890 and easier for working class families to choose to have fewer children. -Strikes and labor agitation- laws that reduced work hours. 1900 no work sat afternoons- working class parents= more attention to children's emotional ties. Even fathers became involved. -Increase interest in well education children as a way to improve their future.
Anti-socialist policy, social welfare legislation
In 1878, Bismarck abandoned the liberals and began to pursue socialists. -When social Democratic Party elected 12 deputies to the Reichstag in 1877 he was alarmed. He believed that socialists were anti nationalistic, anti capitalistic and anti monarchical stance= danger to empire. -1878 he got Parliament to pass stringent anti socialist law that outlawed the socialist Democratic Party and limited socialist meetings and publications. -Bismarck also attempted to take workers away from socialism by enacting welfare legislation. -1883-1889 Reichstag passed laws establishing sickness, accident, disability benefits and old age pensions financed by compulsory contributions from workers, employers, and state. -Bismarck's social security system= most progressive yet though left much to be desired. -Eventually full pension= payable only at age 70 after 48 years of contributions -In event of male workers death, no benefits to window children.
Alexander III, "exceptional measures", Russification
In Russia, government made no concession to liberal/ democratic reforms, elimination possibility mass politics. -Assassination of Alexander II convinced son Alexander III that reform= mistake so instituted "exceptional measures". -Powers of secret police= expanded -Advocates of constitutional monarchy and social reform and revolutionary groups were persecuted. Entire districts of Russia= under martial law if government suspected treason -The zemstvos powers were severely decreased. -Also pursued radical Russification program of numerous nationalities -Russians= 40% of population but he banned all other languages from schools -Policy primarily angered national groups and created opposition to tsarist policies. -When he died his weak son, Nicholas II adopted his conviction that absolute power of tsars should be preserved. If the gov suspected the inhabitants of treason then the entire city was placed under martial law.
New products, internal combustion engine
Internal Combustion engine- 1st engine: Powered by gas and air-source of movable energy Didn't really get popular until fueled by petroleum-then cars and airplanes esp used it. Chemicals -great Britain fell behind in this industry. -Germany and France led in making soda. Germany overtook Britain with artificial dyes. Electricity-New form of electricity because converted into other forms (heat, light, motion) and moved easily through wires. 1870=electric generators=developed. 1881=Britain owned power station. 1910=hydroelectric power stations and coal- fired steam-generating plants enter districts tied to power plant. Light Bulb invented by Thomas Edison and Joseph Swan opened homes and cities to electric lights. Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone in 1876. *Conveyor belts, cranes, machines and machine tools were now powered by electricity everywhere.
Austria-Hungary, Magyarization, nationalities problem
Magyarization- Used to try and solve the issues of nationalities in Hungary. Magyar was the language that was imposed to all schools and was used by government and military officials. -After the creation of the Dual Monarchy of Austria- Hungary in 1867, the Austrian part received a constitution that established a parliament with principle of ministerial responsibility. -Problem of the minorities continued to trouble the empire. -The ethnic Germans governed Austria -Difficulties in dealing with this problem=evident 1878-93 when count Eduard von Taaffe was prime minister. -Taaffe attempted to "muddle through" by relying on a coalition of German conservatives, Czechs, Poles to maintain majorityof parliament. -His concessions to national minorities antagonizes German speaking Austrian bureaucracy and aristocracy. -Opposition to his policies= his downfall but did not solve nationalities problem -Dissatisfied non German groups demanded concessions Germans did not -Francis Joseph= unifying factor. Strongly anti-Hungarian but made effort to take a position above national differences. -Loyalty to Catholic church kept groups loyal to Catholic Habsburg dynasty -Large imperial bureaucracy= unifying force in empire -Unlike Austria, Hungary= working parliament but controlled by great landowners who dominated peasantry and ethnic groups. -Hungarians attempted to solve nationalities problem by system of Magyarization -The Magyar language- imposed on schools and only language used by government and military officials.
Mass politics-political democracies, constitutions, and parliaments
Mass politics- political democracies, constitutions, and parliaments Considerable progress was made in achieving such liberal practices as constitutions and parliaments but it was largely in Western European states that mass politics became a reality. -Reforms encourages the expansion of political democracy through voting rights for men and creation of mass political parties. At the same time, these developments were strongly resisted in parts of Europe where old political forces remained strong.
Mass press, "yellow press"
Most immediate result of mass education was an increase in literacy. Elementary education increased literacy(directly related). Serbia, Romania, Bulgaria and Russia made minimal investments in mass education "Yellow press" -Common newspapers that were in mass circulation, sold copies once a day. -Written in an easily understood style and were sensational. -Were no longer serious but had gossip, sports, crime, and more. -Magazines for entire families and women were also invented.
Paris Commune, causes and effects
National Assembly refused to give up power and decided to crush revolutionary commune Vicious fighting in April and many working class men and women defended. At first women's activities were traditional but gradually they expanded their activities to include taking care of weapons, scouts and setting up own fighting brigades. Louis Michel- one of the leaders of Paris Commune forming committees for defense of revolutionary commune. Group of radical republicans in Paris. Didn't agree with the national assembly on the issue of the type of government-wanted republican. Harsh punishment of women discouraged revolutionary activity by working class women to improve conditions.
Mass leisure, examples
Process of industrial revolution led to an enormous impact on traditional patterns Factory=work patterns. Leisure=what people do for fun not at their job. New leisure hours were created Mechanized urban transportation systems allowed working class to be able to go to athletic events, amusement parks and dance halls. Railroads could take people to beaches on weekends. Mass leisure-With the establishment of shorter workdays and weekends off, people are given time to relax and be with their families. Mass Tourism-upper and middle class created 1st market for tourism but as wages increased and workers were given vacation time, tourism was a form of mass leisure. Overseas tours for industrial and commercial middle classes and soon even British factory workers were able to take weekend trips. Team sports- Not just for fun but also for training- individual skills and teamwork essential for military service. Sports rapidly became professionalized. In Britain the Football Association (1863) and Rugby (1871). -Development of stadius- spectator sports became a big business. -Mostly for men, women could participate in less active sports such as cricket and tennis.
Mass education, female teachers
Product of the mass society of the late 19th century Being "educated" in the early 19th century attending secondary school or university . Expanded into middle class families. France government 1833- State run secular schools- elementary for boys and girls. Rural families children were expected to work on fields and industrial countries= child labor States were responsible for quality of teachers by establishing training schools. Liberals believed that education was important to personal and social improvement and sought to supplant catholic education with moral and civic training based on secular values. Conservatives= attracted to it as means of quality of military recruits and social discipline. Boys and Girls with elementary education had new opportunities for jobs beyond villages (white collar jobs) Expansion of voting rights necessitated more educated electorate and mass compulsory education instilled patriotism and nationalized the masses providing an opportunity for increased national integration. Mass Education- Everyone is given at least a public elementary education provided by the state.
Urban transformations, Public Health Act of 1875
Public Health Act 1875- Prohibited construction of houses without running water and an internal drainage system. this was the first time that governments had been expanded to include detailed regulations for the improvement of the living conditions of the urban dwellers.
Second Industrial Revolution, progress
Role in the emergence of basic economic patterns that have characterized much of modern European economic life. Material prosperity huge Still included recessions and crises but there was more of an increase so it covered the decrease. considered the la belle epoque-golden age in European civilization. Focused on steel, chemicals, electricity, and petroleum for industrial purposes.
Middle-class family ideals
The family=central institution of middle class life. -Men provided family income and women focused on household and childcare -Domestic servant use= cheap labor= decreased time middle class women had to spend on work - Idea that Leisure should be used for constructive purpose supported and encouraged cult of middle class domesticity. -Victorians created family Christmas in US -Establishment of boy scouts in Britain 1908. Patriotism and self sacrifice. -Most organization tried to establish boys clubs for working class youths to reform them. -Ideal of women as nurturing mother, determining atmosphere of household through her character not work.
Kulturkampf, rapprochement*
The policies of Bismarck served to prevent growth of more democratic institutions -At first he worked with liberals to achieve greater centralization of Germany through common codes of criminal and commercial law. The liberals also joined Bismarck in his attack on the Catholic church the so called Kulturkampf or "Struggle for civilization". -Like Bismark, middle class liberals distrusted catholic loyalty to new Germany. -His strong arm tactics against catholic clergy, catholic institutions counterproductive, however, and Bismark welcomed an opportunity in 1878 to abandon attack on Catholicism by making abrupt shift in policy. Bismarck was anti Catholicism and used the liberals to attack the church. The middle class liberals distrusted Catholic loyalty to the new Germany. Tactics didn't work and then Bismarck changed his target to socialists.
Liebknecht and Bebel, Social Democratic Party
Trade unions provided to assist the unemployed. Two Marxist leaders of the Social Democratic Party in Germany. Social Democratic Party- a revolutionary Marxist group that was a mass political party and wanted to win power through being elected into the Reichstag. Wanted to intact legislature to make their living conditions better. Continued to grow although Bismarck tried to stop it.
Trade unionism
Workers also formed trade unions to improve working conditions -Won right to strike in 1870s led to attempts to organize workers 1889 establishment of trade unions 1900 2 million workers and by WWI 3-4 million workers in Britain France union movement tied to social ideologies 1895 French unions created national organization (General confederation of Labor). It decentralization and failure to include more individual unions kept it weak and ineffective. German trade unions- attached to political parties= formed in 1860s. 1899 all accepted bargaining with employers. This= success for German workers and led to gradual improvements. Trade unions = better living and working conditions of laboring class.