Chapter 29 - The Making of Industrial Society
Describe a day in the life of a child factory worker.
A day was pretty rough and dangerous. Horrible. Long and toilsome. REALLY harsh hours. Treated inhumanely, almost like slaves.
Urbanization
A lot of people moved from the countryside to urban centers. In 1900, 50% of the population moved to towns, and 150 cities with over 100,000 people in U.S. and Europe. Urban problems included shoddy houses, fouled air, and inadequate water supply. There was much more pollution of water and air, leading to disease and sickness. Income determined status - wealthy lived in luxurious homes, poor lived in cramped apartments. In the late 19th century, government introduced new regulations for the sake of people's safety.
Birth control
A solution to the problem of whether one could have intercourse without getting pregnant. Allowed a family to have less children, as the mortality rate of children decreased through demographic transition. Voluntary birth control through contraception.
Birth control Significance
Allowed a family to have less children, as the mortality rate of children decreased through demographic transition.
Communist Manifesto Significance
Believed capitalism would grind to a halt, and a socialist revolution (the "dictatorship of the proletariat") would destroy the institutions of private property and capitalism.
What were some of the material benefits in terms of standard of living that accompanied industrialization?
Better diets, improved sanitation, the smallpox vaccination laid the foundation of immunology, less expensive cost of living (especially concerning clothes and textiles). All these new material benefits and inventions were showcased at London's crystal palace, where people could see new products from all over.
How was Betty Harris's experience representative of many other workers during the era of Industrialization?
Betty Harris was a drawer - someone who hauled coal from the bottom of narrow mineshafts. Received low pay despite doing essential work. Wore a belt with a chain tied to it that she had to wear even while pregnant. Conditions were less than ideal, being given little respect, having to go through water, wearing uncomfortable belts, and facing both physical and sexual abuse.
Thomas Telford
Bridges and canals. Godfather of civil engineering. Brought roads up and made ways for water. Laid foundation for industrial England.
What was the impact of industrialization on global trade? Discuss the new "geographic division of labor."
Brought great economic and military strength as well as social and economic development. There was increased demand for raw materials such as rubber and cotton. Specialization often led to economic development in European-settled places with high-wage economies (ex. Canada, Argentina, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, etc.) Flourishing markets and encouragement of entrepreneurs to invent labor-saving technologies. Many territories, however, attracted little foreign investment and mechanical industry. Foreign investors owned and controlled plantations and production. Free-trade policy favored foreign products over domestic, and the world was divided into producers and consumers.
Steam power Significance
Burnt coal to boil water and create steam, driving mechanical devices to perform work by getting pistons to turn the wheel. Led to increased productivity and cheaper prices.
What changed about the roles/expectations of children during the Industrial Revolution?
Children worked long hours with few breaks, and life was often abusive, but the money was needed. Eventually, laws began to regulate child labor. Child labor created a new expectation of children not being at home all day, and in 1881, primary education was declared as mandatory for all children.
Corporations Significance
Controlled most businesses - provided large investments in land, machinery, production, and more, since industrialization is expensive and needs these large investments.
Eli Whitney
Cotton Gin. Textile/agriculture industry. Sped up the process of removing seeds from cotton fiber. Efficient and impactful. Increased profits, but also increased slavery.
What were some of the lasting effects of socialism on politics, economics and society?
Critiques led to gradual social reform to protect the working class. Work hours for women and children decreased, and although these reforms came from a good place, this narrowed the options for women's work. The government ended up become much more aware of its role to protect people.
Coal
Crucial to Britain's industrialization. Replaced wood as the main fuel for iron production since wood was lost due to deforestation. Coal deposits were in the perfect locations in Britain - always abundant. Coal allowed for easy usage of the steam engine. Chinese coal-related industrialization took place later due to lack of accessible coal deposits there.
What factors led to the relative demographic stabilization?
Demographic transition was the social change referring to fall of fertility and mortality and increasing the population rate, decreasing the birthrate. The decline of both birth rate and mortality rate, as children would live longer. There were medical advances to control disease, such as Jenner's smallpox vaccination.
What contributed to the appearance and spread of factories?
Early modern Europe used the putting-out system (Individuals worked with raw materials in their own households) until higher demand led to a system providing more supply, focused on more specialization. Replaced the putting-out system and proto-industrial factories. Began with evolution of textile industries. Became the center of cotton production. Machines were too large for usage at home. Had to have a specific place for them. This provided a centralized location for specialized workers. Also needed a new division of labor - each person did one rather than the whole thing. Required coordination, work discipline, and close supervision.
Luddites Significance
English handicraft workers who went on a violent rampage to destroy all machines that were destroying their livelihoods.
What were the effects on family life and on the expected roles of men and women in this regard?
Families stopped being the basic productive unit. Now it worked for the welfare of the larger group, dividing work and family lives. Industrial work became more important for men than chores or agriculture, which women were still expected to do. Men often made the prime source of income, and began to focus on self-improvement, discipline, and work ethic. Women were discouraged for working, but they ended up being hired frequently due to their small hands, ability to go under machines, and being paid for lower wages. However, they couldn't work without getting someone to care for their children, and they were expected to be model mothers.
John Kay
Flying Shuttle. Textile industry. Brought threads together to make the textile. Sped up weaving process and increased demand for thread. Decreased some jobs, however.
How can we overcome the food challenges facing our growing population?
Food must be evenly dispersed - one country cannot simply stockpile it for their sake. Obesity in one country does not serve as a proper balance against famine in another, especially considering predictions for future population growth. Along with that, 33% of all food is wasted. We must find a better way to take advantage of as much food as possible before it is thrown out and wasted.
Ford & assembly line Significance
Ford introduced the assembly line to subdivide labor and produce much cheaper and more efficient goods.
Luddites
From 1811 - 1816, Luddites (English handicraft workers) went on a violent rampage to destroy all machines that were destroying their livelihood. King Lud, the leader, was a boy who broke a knitting frame in spite of his father. Popular due to being violent towards machines instead of people. Fourteen Luddites hung in 1813, causing the death of the movement.
How did things gradually improve regarding child labor?
Government got involved and people began to be appalled by child labor. Whether it be government or church, society deemed it exploitative and wrong. Attitudes shifted, policies shifted. Decided that children should be educated instead.
Why did Europe and Great Britain in particular lead the way in industrialization?
Great Britain had an abundance of coal deposits, allowing for proper fuel for industrialization. Its conquered and colonized lands made it so Britain did not have to worry about lack of resources by providing raw materials. Slave-based plantations gave sugar and cotton, and American resources such as grain, timber, and beef, were available (America also served as a great outlet for surplus population). Colonies also became great markets for British goods.
Division of labor Significance
Having it be that each person within a factory does one job rather than making the entire item.
Ford & assembly line
Henry Ford introduced the assembly line to automobile production in 1913, using standardized parts and specialization to divide labor. This resulted in quicker and much more efficient production. Mass production provided cheaper goods and opened up the factory system to new industries.
Corporations
In the 1850s and 1860s, Britain and France laid the foundations for the modern corporation. Industrialization is expensive, and thusly needed large investments. The corporation controlled most businesses by providing large investments in land, machinery, production, and more. Banks, brokerage firms, and financial businesses all rose to support corporations. More bureaucratic, transcends borders. Pooling resources
Francis Cabot Lowell-
Industrial mills. Organized everybody else's ideas into one plan. Imported British industrial ideas. Incredibly humane to his workers.
How did Britain maintain a virtual monopoly on industrialization, and what finally undermined this?
Industrialization first started in Great Britain due to abundance of resources. Because of this, britain maintained an industrial monopoly 1750 -1800 through banning the immigration of skilled workers.
Cotton Mechanization Significance
Industrialized the textile industry in order to supply the increasing demand for cheap textiles. Ended up creating machines that vastly improved on hand-based methods, all for a lower cost.
How and why did steel come to replace iron?
Iron and steel industry propelled forward, and with better iron and steel came better machines. Used coke (purified coal) as a fuel to produce iron (Replaced charcoal due to scarcity of wood). Coke gave room to produce more iron. Despite this, stell was harder, stronger, and more resilient, therefore replacing iron. Although steel was once expensive to make, Henry Bessemer's Bessemer Converter (a blast furnace) made the production of cheap, strong steel possible.
Identify an argument from the "Lowell Offering" and explain how it countered the position of Orestes Brownson.
It was good for women and they ended up getting paid quite a bit. They're being treated well and get good pay. This is contributing to the greater good of our society, so we should be happy about it!
Marx & Engels
Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820 - 1895) found Utopian socialism unrealistic. Thought social problems were inevitable results of capitalism, which had two classes: capitalists (owners of factories - means of production) and proletarians (wage workers), competition of capitalists ruthlessly exploited the proletariat, and capitalists used EVERY possible institution (government, art, religion) to maintain their control over proletarians. Wrote these views down in the "Manifesto of the Communist Party", believing that excess of capitalism would call for a socialist revolution that would destroy private property and capitalism.
What were some of the "push/pull" factors driving European migration to the Americas?
Lots of migrations to the Americas (especially the US) led to stunning demographic growth. Over 50 million people! Many expected to return home with a fortune earned in the Americas. Most remained, reflecting political conflict. Lots of labor from migrants who hoped to escape political turmoil, such as famine in Ireland, anti-semitism in Russia, etc.
How true was Malthus's theory
Malthus believed that the demand for food would eventually be greater than its supply, and as a result, the price for food in its decreased supply would increase, increasing the cost of living, and decreasing family growth. Currently, I would disagree about this prophecy concerning the US, being that it appears that everyone is well-fed. However, I can certainly see where this is an issue in overpopulated countries. Many people believe that the issues within the third-world serve as proper vindication of Malthus's prophecies. We have enough food - distribution is the problem.
Communist Manifesto
Mark and Friedrich wrote their ideas down in the "Manifesto of the Communist Party". Communists worked toward the abolition of private property and the institution of extreme egalitarianism, which would be followed by socialism. Believed capitalism would grind to a halt, and a socialist revolution (the "dictatorship of the proletariat") would destroy the institutions of private property and capitalism. Marx and Engel's thought dominated European socialism, though prominent socialists debated over the best way of reform.
What led to mass production, and what was its effect on society?
New innovations opened up the factory system to industries other than the textile industry. Eli Whitney created the concept of interchangeable parts, leading to Ford's introduction of the assembly line to automobile production in 1913. This subdivision of labor resulted in quicker, much more efficient production. Mass production provided cheaper goods.
What were the downsides for workers in this new factory system?
New labor divisions allowed for managers to improve worker productivity, but the workers ended up losing their status. They were no longer artisans, now only serving as wage-earners. Owners depended on workers for their livelihood, and there was harsh discipline, fast work, and frequent accidents.
Life after industrialization
New sense of time based on bells and clocks Urbanization. Closer to jobs. Convenience of goods. Middle class formed Child labor, immigrants, and mill girls Monotonous work People bought food Faster pace of life Longer life expectancy Cities provided education options. First public schools Factories Labor unions Child labor laws Increased slavery Pollution Faster transportation
How were social classes reshaped by the Industrial Revolution?
New social classes came into being. Captains of industry were aristocrats of wealth. Industrial wealth overshadowed other forms of wealth. The middle class formed - moderately waged workers. The working class was composed of unskilled laborers who worked under heavy labor for low wages.
Were inventors successful at the time?
Not really - often got ripped off
To what extent have Thomas Malthus's prophecies come true?
Numbers show that millions of people suffer from chronic hunger, 33% of all food is wasted, and food must be evenly dispersed throughout the world. It is exceptionally true that many of us live in a bubble where we fail to see that in many areas of the world, Malthus's prophecies have come true.
Coal Significance
One of the most crucial elements of Britain's industrialization, replacing wood as fuel for iron production due to its abundance.
Urbanization Significance
Over 50% of populations moved from the countryside to urban centers as a result of industrialization.
John McAdam
Paved roads. Used small, flattened rocks to cover up road. Cheaper and much more durable. Expanded accessibility for transportation and communication.
Ways The Industrial Revolution Transformed People's Lives
People followed a new sense of time - Bells and clocks People used to live mainly in rural areas - very few lived in cities. Introduced people to machines and loud noises - new, quicker lifestyle. New public education Brought longer lifespans Used to depend on farmland and home-centered cotton-making (putting-out system) Spinning Jenny and Water Frame focused on hydraulic power to make work quicker. More machines also came into focus, making work much quicker. Factories destroyed many jobs but also provided many People would leave home for work at factories, changing work standards and the ways children were raised. People would spy on machine designs to sneak them out of the country. Power looms brought to the US in 1814. Cotton gin greatly increased cotton production Interchangeable parts Child labor majority at first, then a majority of unmarried women, then immigrants Steam powered machines brought an appetite for coal Industrial revolution ushered in the modern age (and a middle class)
What did Rockefeller have a monopoly over?
Petroleum
What accounted for the massive population growth of this time period? Where was this growth?
Population growth reflected the better standard of living. A huge boom in US (6 million to 76 million) and Europe. High fertility and low mortality. Medical advances controlled disease, such as Jenner's smallpox vaccination which laid the foundation of immunology. Better diets and improved sanitation reduced death rates. Demographic transition reflected the declining birth rate and declining mortality rates.
What were some of the advantages to factory system?
Provided a centralized place for specialized workers, and rural workers were able to provide lots of labor. Needed a new form of organization as the division of labor: each person did one job rather than the whole thing. Each person did a specific task. Required and taught coordination, work discipline, and close supervision.
Cyrus McCormick
Reaper. Agricultural industry. Uses a vibrating blade in order to plant seeds. Mechanization led to more food to harvest, innovated sales practices.
Jethro Tull
Seed drill. Agriculture industry. Attaching a device to horses, drilling holes and funneling seeds into the holes being dug. Evenly spaced out. Much more efficient. Helped feed people.
What steps can/should societies of the world take toward handling population growth?
Society must continue adopting better plans concerning technology and techniques for providing good food and keeping the population at a good rate. Birth control and contraception serve as a solution to the population issue, as the concern of increasing population comes with the introduction of new children.
Samuel Crompton
Spinning Mule. Textile industry. Thread pulled through rollers and spun around the creel to make it stronger, eventually wrapping it around a spindle. Made weaving easier. Higher quality yarn - began the "cotton boom".
What industries most relied upon children? Why were children especially desirable for these jobs?
Textiles and mining. Small and able to go underneath equipment. Will do it for very little wages
Where did industrialization take off next in Europe and why?
The French revolution laid foundation for industrialization. There was an abolishment of inner trade barriers, allowing more accessibility for laborers. France and Belgium industrialized in the 19th century. Belgium was the earliest continental center of industrial production.
Division of labor
The division so that each person within a factory does one job rather than the whole thing. Requires coordination, work discipline, and close supervision. A form of specialization.
What were some of the common features of some of the places that would first become industrialized?
The first areas to become industrialized were usually growing economies. Their successful agricultural economies and productivity led to an increase in population growth, encouraging specialization and industrialization. It was also sparked by deforestation and depletion of other resources.
Steam power
The most crucial invention. James Watt invented the General-Purpose steam engine. Burnt coal to boil water and create steam, driving mechanical devices to perform work. Previous versions used too much fuel to be successful. Watt depended on steam forcing piston to turn the wheel. Created the term "horsepower" to invent a form of measurement of energy created by his engine. Widespread use led to increased productivity and cheaper prices, especially prominent in the textile industry.
Cotton Mechanization
The textile industry had to speed up spinning and weaving to supply the intense demand, since people wanted it cheap. Weaving/spinning based machines were focused on as opposed to hand-based wool/linen techniques. John-kay invented the flying shuttle to speed up the weaving process. Simulated a demand for thread. Samuel Crompton invented the "mule". Built in 1779 and steam powered in 1790, it could produce 100x more thread than manually. Weavers could not catch up to machinery's speed, and Edmund Cartwright invented the water-driven power loom in 1785. Fulfilled demand of textiles and even sold them at a lower cost.
How was textile production revolutionized?
The textile industry had to speed up spinning and weaving to supply the intense demand, since people wanted it cheap. Weaving/spinning based machines were focused on as opposed to hand-based wool/linen techniques. John-kay invented the flying shuttle to speed up the weaving process. Simulated a demand for thread. Samuel Crompton invented the "mule". Built in 1779 and steam powered in 1790, it could produce 100x more thread than manually. Weavers could not catch up to machinery's speed, and Edmund Cartwright invented the water-driven power loom in 1785. Fulfilled demand of textiles and even sold them at a lower cost.
List and explain three reasons Orestes Brownson used to oppose the employment of women as factory "operatives."
They get very little from the treatment, die from harsh conditions, and they never get married. To him, this ruins the notion of a virtuous girl.
labor unions
Trade unions also sought to advance equitability, but the wealthy disapproved of it. Considered trade unions illegal ways to restrain trade, leading to unions using strikes and violence. They ended up working - making employers realize their responsibility over their workers' needs.
What was advantageous and disadvantageous for industrialization in America?
Transformed North America into the 19th century. Lured British craftworkers to New England for the sake of the textile industry in the 1820s. Heavy iron and steel industries in the 1870s, since the size of the USA is good for industry (Transportation and distribution). Rail networks developed in the 1860s - integrated various regions of the USA. Despite all this, there was a slow start with very few laborers and little capital.
How did steam power transform industrialization and transportation?
Transportation improved due to better steam engines and better steel. Watt's steam engine wasn't the best for transportation due to large usage of coal. However, George Stephenson created the first steam-powered locomotive in 1815. Still burned too much coal for sea travel at first, but steamships eventually replaced sailing ships in the mid-19th century. Transportation costs were lowered due to greater ability to carry cargo. Led to a dense network of transportation and trade.
Trusts/cartels
Trust = vertical (controlling every stage of production) Cartel = horizontal (buying out every company and controlling price) Many corporations wanted to eliminate the competition, hence the formation of trusts and cartels. Trusts were vertical organization such as Rockefeller's standard oil co. Cartels were horizontal organization such as IG Farbu, the world's largest chemical company. Both wanted to control a product's price and supply. Some tried to control everything, some tried to absorb the competition.
Compare vertical to horizontal organization.
Trust = vertical (controlling every stage of production) Cartel = horizontal (buying out every company and controlling price). Many corporations wanted to eliminate the competition, forming trusts and cartels. Both wanted to control a product's price and supply. Some tried to control everything through vertical organization (ex: Rockefeller's standard oil co.). Some used horizontal organization to absorb the competition and fix prices, dividing up the market (ex. IG Farbu, the world's largest chemical company.) Some governments outlawed monopolies, some ignored them.
Describe in basic terms the negative consequences to urbanization.
Urban problems included shoddy houses, fouled air, and inadequate water supply. Much more pollution of the water and air, leading to diseases and sickness. Income determined status. The wealthy focused on luxuries to block out urban issues, and the poor lived in cramped apartments. Everything is good, however, as in the late 19th century, the government introduced new regulations for the sake of people's safety.
labor unions Significance
Used strikes and violence to make sure employers realized their responsibility over being responsive towards their workers' needs.
Fourier & Owen Significance
Utopian socialists who wanted a fully equitable society that provided for all needs.
Fourier & Owen
Utopian socialists. Fourier (1772-1837) and Owen (1771-1858) wanted communities to be of an equitable society. They were to work together rather than as competitors, providing for all needs and educating children. Made many experimental societies under this model.
What were the ideas of socialism that evolved into the ideas of communism?
Utopian socialists. Fourier (1772-1837) and Owen (1771-1858) wanted communities to be of an equitable society. They were to work together rather than as competitors, providing for all needs and educating children. Made many experimental societies under this model. Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820 - 1895) found Utopian socialism unrealistic. Thought social problems were inevitable results of capitalism, which had two classes: capitalists (owners of factories - means of production) and proletarians (wage workers), competition of capitalists ruthlessly exploited the proletariat, and capitalists used EVERY possible institution (government, art, religion) to maintain their control over proletarians. Wrote these views down in the "Manifesto of the Communist Party", believing that excess of capitalism would call for a socialist revolution that would destroy private property and capitalism. Communists worked toward the abolition of private property and the institution of extreme egalitarianism, which would be followed by socialism. Believed capitalism would grind to a halt, and a socialist revolution (the "dictatorship of the proletariat") would destroy the institutions of private property and capitalism. Marx and Engel's thought dominated European socialism, though prominent socialists debated over the best way of reform.
Richard Arkwright
Water frame. Makes cotton threads, fueled by water. Also created the cotton factory system. Entirely hydroelectric.
Trusts/cartels Significance
Ways to eliminate the competition within the industry by either controlling everything or absorbing everything.
What are the ramifications and negative consequences of our ever- growing population?
When the population grows, it overwhelms the supply of food available. This increases the price of food, increasing the cost of living, and decreasing any potential population growth. This would eventually cause people to have to turn forests into farmland, returning to an agricultural society. War, famine, plague, and pestilence would all serve as checks to population.
Describe the conditions in America around 1840 that encouraged young women to seek employment outside of their home.
Women would work in factories in order to receive better wages and create a new, ideal life. They received good housing, good clothes, and decent conditions, encouraging them to leave home and work. Freed from the home and independent.
Life before industrialization
Working hours determined by light of day Limited awareness of life outside the village 2 main classes (small, rich class and many poor) 9 out of 10 lived in rural areas People worked at home People grew their own food Slower pace of life Shorter life expectancy Lack of formal education Putting-out system
Marx & Engels Significance
Wrote the "Manifesto of the Communist Party". With great disdain for capitalism, they believed that excess capitalism would lead to the "dictatorship of the proletariat", which would destroy the institution of private property and capitalism.
Henry Bessemer
blast furnace. Father of the steel industry. Used the bessemer process instead of cast iron. Used oxygen to help create hard steel, blew oxygen through a molten iron pig. Increased production speed and quantity and disposed of slag. His invention helped lay the foundation for many other industries.
Samuel Slater and Moses Brown-
first American textile mills. Textile industry. Illegally brought textile technology to America. Built first successful American textile mills as well as "new" methods of spinning. Employed a lot of people within America, cultural diffusion of the textile industry.
James Hargreaves
spinning jenny. Textile industry,
James Watt and Matthew Boulton
steam engine. Pressure generated by steam in a cylinder was used to generate power; transportation and agricultural industries. Engines were used to power equipment in many different industries.
George Stephenson
steam locomotive. Transportation. Harnessed pulling power of steam engine - using coal in order to power the locomotive. Many different versions - important: the Rocket. Pioneered the railway age and transportation of raw materials.
Edmund Cartwright
water-driven power loom. Textile industry. A power loom completely powered by water. Eventually shifted into the steam engine. Increase of jobs, cost of clothes went down.