Chapter 4: Ancient India and China

S4: Daoism

A system of ideas and beliefs based on the teachings of Chinese thinker Laozi, who believed that people should live a simple, honest life and not interfere with the course of natural events

S1: Rajas

According to the Vedas, people settled in villages much smaller than the cities of the Indus Valley. Later, groups of villages banded together under regional leaders known as rajas (RAH-juhz). According to the Vedas, the raja was primarily a war leader who was responsible for protecting the people. In return for this protection, he received payments of food or money

S1: Varnas

According to the oldest of the Vedas, the Rigveda, Vedic society was divided into four social classes called varnas. Each varna played a particular role in society. These roles are alluded to in a passage of the Rigveda that describes the creation of humans. According to this passage, people of the four varnas were created from the body of a single being: "The Brahmin was his mouth, of both his arms was the Rajanya [Kshatriya] made. His thighs became the Vaisya, from his feet the Sudra was produced." —Rigveda, 10.90 The part of the body from which each varna was created was tied to its duties. For example, brahmins came from the mouth, the source of speech and wisdom, and thus were priests.

S3: Four Noble Truths

Among the ideas that the Buddha is said to have learned while meditating are four central truths. Together, these are called the Four Noble Truths: - Suffering is a part of human life. No one can escape from suffering while alive. - Suffering comes from people's desires for pleasure and material goods. - Overcoming these desires during life eventually brings suffering to an end. - Desires can be overcome by following the Eightfold Path.

S4: Loess

Annual floods along the Chang Jiang and the Huang He deposited rich soil on the rivers' flood plains. The valley of the Huang He was particularly fertile, due in large part to the type of soil that the river picked up. Called loess (LES), it was a fine dusty soil that had been carried into China by desert winds.

S2: Jainism

Around 500 BC, a group of Hindus broke away from the religion and founded a new religion called Jainism (JYN-iz-uhm). Led by a teacher named Mahavira, the Jains thought that most Hindus of the time put too much emphasis on ritual. The Jains thought this ritual was unnecessary, because people could achieve moksha by giving up all worldly things and carefully controlling their actions.

S4: Oracle Bones

As part of their worship, the Shang often asked their ancestors for advice. They sought this advice through the use of oracle bones, inscribed bits of animal bone or turtle shell. First, the living person would ask a question of an ancestor.

S2: Ahimsa

Central to Jain teaching was the idea of ahimsa, or nonviolence. Ahimsa was not a new idea. In fact, most Hindus also practiced ahimsa, though not to the same extent as the Jains did. Jains carefully avoid harming any living creature, from people to insects. As a result, Jains are usually vegetarians, refusing to eat meat from any animal.

S4: Court

During the Shang period, China was ruled by a strong monarchy. At their capital city of Anyang, Shang kings were surrounded by a court, or gathering of wealthy nobles, who performed rituals intended to strengthen the kingdom and keep it safe.

S2: Moksha

For Hindus, the ultimate goal of human existence is moksha, escape from the cycle of rebirth. When a person achieves moksha, the atman leaves the world and reunites fully with Brahman. During their lives, Hindus work toward achieving moksha because it releases a person from worldly cares and the difficulties of life on Earth.

S1: Monsoons

Heavy rains also add to the fertility of the Northern Plains. Much of this rain is brought to India by seasonal winds called monsoons. During the summer months, monsoon winds from the southwest bring warm air and heavy rains from the Indian Ocean. Most of India's annual rainfall occurs at this time. In the winter, northeast monsoons blow cool, dry air from Central Asia, resulting in drier months.

S2: Reincarnation

Hindus believe that the universe and everyone in it are part of a continual pattern of birth, death, and rebirth. After death, they believe that the atman will be released from the body and later reborn in another, a process called reincarnation, or samsara.

S3: Buddhism

In addition to Hinduism, another of the world's major religions developed in ancient India. That religion was Buddhism. Unlike Hinduism, which evolved over thousands of years, Buddhism can be traced back to the teachings of a single founder, Siddhartha Gautama, also called the Buddha.

S1: Citadel

In the largest cities, a walled, elevated citadel, or fortress, enclosed buildings such as granaries, warehouses, and meeting halls. Homes, workshops, and shrines were built outside the citadel. Such planning and uniformity among cities suggests that a central authority held power over the civilization.

S1: Subcontinent

India's Geography The Indus River, home of one of the ancient world's great river valley civilizations, flows across the northwest edge of the Indian subcontinent. A subcontinent is a large landmass that is part of a continent. As its name implies, most of the Indian subcontinent is occupied by the country of India.

S4: Confucianism

Known in Chinese as Kongfuzi or Master Kong, the man known in the West as Confucius was born to a poor but noble family. From a young age, he was an eager student, constantly asking questions in order to learn more. As an adult, he became a teacher, the first in China to try to make education available to all children, regardless of their social class. He viewed education as the only way to improve oneself.

S4: Dynastic Cycle

Later Chinese rulers used the Mandate of Heaven to explain the dynastic cycle, the rise and fall of dynasties in China. Any dynasty that lost power, they claimed, had obviously become corrupt, and it was the will of the gods that it be overthrown. Historians still use the cycle of dynasties to organize their studies of early Chinese history.

S1: Vedas

Little archaeological evidence remains to document the early Aryan period in India. Most of what we know comes from sacred writings called the Vedas (VAY-duhs), which include many details about Aryan history and society. As a result, this period in Indian history is often called the Vedic period.

S4: Laozi

Little is known of the life of Laozi, the recorded author of the Dao De Jing, the major work of Daoist philosophy. According to one ancient historian who lived four centuries after Laozi is said to have died, Laozi had served as the official historian for a powerful noble. The same historian recorded that Laozi once met Confucius, who was younger than Laozi and quite pleased to meet the older philosopher.

S2: Hinduism

One of the world's oldest religions, Hinduism is practiced by most people in India today. Because it is so old, however, its origins are difficult to trace. Unlike other major religions, Hinduism has no founder. It evolved over thousands of years and was influenced by the cultures and traditions of many peoples.

S1: Castes

Over centuries, the four varnas of the Vedic period were divided into hundreds of smaller divisions called castes. Membership in a caste determined what jobs one could hold and whom one could marry. A social hierarchy developed in which some castes had more privileges than others, though the order of castes could and did change frequently. Not everyone in society belonged to a caste, though. A group commonly referred to as the untouchables had none of the protections of caste law and could perform only jobs that other castes did not, such as handling dead animals.

S3: Buddha

Siddhartha Gautama, also called the Buddha.

S3: Nirvana

The Buddha taught that those who followed the Eightfold Path could attain nirvana, a state of perfect peace in which the soul would be free from suffering forever. Those who do not attain nirvana will be reborn to live through the cycle of suffering again.

S3: Eightfold Path

The Eightfold Path is a series of steps that Buddhists believe leads to enlightenment and salvation. It includes the following: Right view, or accepting the reality of the Four Noble Truths Right attitude, or striving for moderation in all things Right speech, or avoiding lies, boasts, and hurtful words Right action, or treating others fairly Right livelihood, or avoiding jobs that could bring harm to others Right effort, or constantly trying to improve oneself Right mindfulness, or remaining aware of the world around one, and Right concentration, or ignoring temptation and discomfort while meditating

S3: Middle Way

The basic teachings of the Eightfold Path can also be expressed as the Middle Way. In its simplest form, the Middle Way advises people to live in moderation, avoiding the extremes of either comfort or discomfort in the search for nirvana.

S2: Karma

The nature of the person's new life will be shaped by his or her karma, the sum effect of his or her deeds and actions during life. People who have behaved well will have good karma and can be reincarnated to a better station in the next life. Conversely, those who have bad karma will have a lower station.

S2: Dharma

The way to achieve moksha is to fulfill one's dharma, or set of spiritual duties and obligations. Individuals' dharmas vary based on their class and their station in life. Fulfilling one's dharma allows a person to create good karma, to avoid suffering, and, eventually, to break free from the cycle of rebirth.

S2: Yoga

To help them meditate, some Hindus also practice a series of integrated physical and mental exercises called yoga. The purpose of yoga is to teach people how to focus their bodies and minds, which will aid their meditation and help them attain moksha.

S4: Mandate of Heaven

When the Zhou conquered the Shang, their leaders worried that the Chinese people would not accept them. To gain acceptance for their rule, the Zhou introduced the idea that they ruled by the Mandate of Heaven. This principle stated that the gods would support a just ruler, but they would not allow anyone corrupt to hold power.