Chapter 4 - carbohydrates

monosaccharides

a carbohydrate made up of a single sugar unit (C6H12O6) - consists of glucose, fructose, and galactose - all together monosaccharides have: 6 carbon atoms, 12 hydrogen atoms, and 6 oxygen atoms

diabetes: immediate symptoms

excessive thirst, frequent urination, blurred vision, weight loss

healthy bowl function

extra bulk = stimulates peristalsis

refined

foods that have undergone processing that changes or removes various components of the original food. - separates the carbohydrates form their fiber and some of their vitamins and minerals - oatmeal, whole-wheat bread, fresh fruits, and milk are considered unrefined or whole food sources of carbohydrates because they haven't been altered from their natural state.

prebiotics

foods that you consume that aren't fully digested that go into your colon. The bacteria that live there promote beneficial health.

gestational diabetes

form of diabetes that occurs during pregnancy and resolves after the baby is born. There may be an increase risk of developing type 2 diabetes later in life.

fiber slows absorption of _____ and reduces _____ fluctuations

glucose blood glucose

enriched grains

grain products to which specific amounts of thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, iron, and folic acid have been added since there were lost in the refining process.

what are some good sources of natural unrefined CHO

grains, veggies, legumes, fruits, nuts, seeds, and milk

glycemic response

how quickly and how high blood glucose rises after carbohydrates are consumed

hypoglycemia: symptoms

irritability, nervousness, sweating, anxiety, rapid heartbeat, headache, hunger, weakened, and sometimes seizure and coma.

parts of a whole grain: germ

located at the base of the kernel; it is the embryo or sprouting portion of a kernel of grain. it contains oils, proteins, fiber, and vitamins.

disaccharide(Definition and what it includes)

made up of 2 sugar units (monosaccharides) joined together. - maltose (glucose + glucose) - sucrose (fructose +glucose) - lactose (glucose + galactose)

types of nonnutritive sweeteners available in the U.S.: acesulfame K

- sold as Sunette or Sweet one; heat stable. - often used in combinations with other sweeteners. It is 200x sweeter than sucrose. - ADI: 15 mg/kg of body weight/day. A 154 lb. person could consume 2 gallons of beverages containing this sweetener without exceeding the ADI.

fiber rich meal

- slower digestion, less absorption, diluted nutrients - more bulk in diet, greater peristalsis, faster transmit time means less time in the GI tract.

steps of carbohydrate digestion and absorption

1. in the mouth, the enzyme salivary amylase starts breaking down starch into shorter polysaccharides. 2. int he stomach,salivary amylase is activated by acid so no carbohydrate digestion occurs 3. In the small intestine, pancreatic amylase completes the job of breaking down starch into disaccharides and oligosaccharides 4. At the villi of the small intestines, enzymes attached to the microvilli complete the digestion of disaccharides and oligosaccharides into monosaccharides. • Maltase breaks maltose = glucose + glucose • Sucrose breaks sucrose = glucose + fructose • Lactase breaks lactose = glucose + galactose • Glucose, galactose, and fructose = absorbed and transported via hepatic portal vein to liver. 5. In the large intestine, fiber and other indigestible carbohydrates are partially broken down by bacteria to form short-chain fatty acids and gas. The remaining fiber is excreted into the feces.

changes in the amount and sources of carbohydrate intake in the American diet

1909-1963: decrease in total CHO intake. (decreased intake of whole grain, 40% decrease in intake of fiber) 1960s-2000: increase in total CHO intake (fiber intake didn't increase with total CHO.)

ketones

molecules formed in the liver when there is not sufficient carbohydrate to completely metabolize the two carbon units produced from fat breakdown.

two types of carbohydrates

monosaccharides and disaccharides

monosaccharide: galactose

combines glucose to form lactose, or milk sugar - rarely present as a monosaccharide... part of lactose (disaccharide in milk)

how do indigestible carbohydrates affect transit time?

decrease transit time increase peristalsis

added sugars

sugars and syrups that have been added to foods during processing or preparation

whole grain

the entire kernel of grain including bran layers, the germ, and the endosperm. unrefined

supplying glucose to body cells: gluconeogenesis

the synthesis of glucose from simple noncarbohydrate molecules. Amino acids from protein are the primary source of carbons for glucose synthesis.

types of nonnutritive sweeteners available in the U.S.: aspartame

- "the blue packet" - cannot be used by people with phenylketonuria (PKU); aspartic acid and phenylalanine (2 AAs); scientific consensus safe for most people - Nutrasweet, Equal, Nutritaste; not for cooked foods, found often in soft drinks - made of two amino acids. Typically in cold products or added after cooking because it breaks down when heated. It is 200x sweeter than sucrose. - ADI: 50 mg/kg of body weight/day. - to excess the ADI, a 154 lb person would have to consume 95 packets . IT must be limited in the diets of people with phenylketonuria.

types of nonnutritive sweeteners available in the U.S.: saccharin

- "the pink packet" - no longer has a warning - the oldest nonnutritive sweetness. - it is 300x sweeter than sucrose and has a bitter aftertaste. - ADI: 5 mg/kg of body weight/day. - a 154lb person would exceed the ADI by consuming 1 packet or 3 12 oz. saccharin sweetened beverages.

diabetes: long term symptoms

- Damage to the small blood vessels: retinopathy (eyes), neuropathy (nervous system), and nephropathy (kidney) - Damage to the large blood vessels: heart disease and stroke - Infections are more common in patients with diabetes. - Blocked arteries in the legs. Reduced blood flow to the feet, causing sores that heal slowly or not at all. Infections are common because high blood glucose levels favor microbial growth. Infections may lead to amputation of toes feet and legs - Nerve damage that causes numbness and pain - Nerve damage causing numbness and tingling in the feet that affect balance and increase the risk of accidental injury.

fructose: most widely used varieties of high fructose corn syrups are

- HFCS 55 - mostly used in soft drinks, approximately 55% fructose and 42% glucose. - HFCS 42 - used in many foods and baked goods. Approximately 42% fructose and 53% glucose.

why is protein broken down to supply blood glucose Glucogenesis

- If diet is low in carbohydrate then excess protein catabolized to amino acids to make glucose, thus, " carbohydrate is said to spare protein" - Occur in liver and kidney cells in between meal as liver glycogen is reduced. Both glycogen and gluconeogenesis are sources of blood glucose in between meals when glucose form food has all been stored I glycogen and used for energy. - Synthesizes glucose (requires energy) - Uses AA (from protein breakdown (Glucogenic amino acids)(Form pyruvate or oxaloacetate. Make glucose.) - Essential for immediate glucose needs (Especially when cholesterol intake is low) - But uses protein to make glucose that could be used for other essential functions (Growth and maintenance) - Adequate cholesterol eliminates need for AA to make glucose so... cholesterol = protein sparing

cellular respiration: glycolysis (anaerobic respiration)

- In cytosol (anaerobic metabolism); produces pyruvate, ATP, and high energy electron - Glycolysis can proceed under anaerobic condition. Glycolysis splits glucose into 2 molecules of pyruvate - Complete respiration or oxidation of glucose requires oxygen and is aerobic. - Glycolysis splits glucose to 2 molecules of pyruvate. Produces high-energy electrons and 2 ATP per glucose. Each pyruvate is then either broken down to more ATP or used to make glucose (via gluconeogenesis) - Metabolic reaction in the cytosol of the cell that split glucose into two carbon pyruvate molecules, yielding 2 ATP molecules

cellular respiration: Acetyl CoA

- In mitochondria, combines with oxaloacetate to form citric acid, which enters the citric acid cycle to yield ATP, CO2 and high-energy electrons. - Acetyl CoA enters Citric acid cycle, carbon lost as CO2, high energy electrons = released and small amount of ATP is produced.

cellular respiration: Acetyl CoA formation (aerobic respiration)

- In mitochondria, from pyruvate and coenzyme A. Oxygen is required, and CO2 is produced during this process. - When OXYGEN is available pyruvate = used to produce more ATP. 1st - remove one carbon as CO2 from each pyruvate, producing 2 carbon molecule that combines with coenzyme A to form acetyl CoA and release high energy electrons - Metabolism in the presence of oxygen, which can completely break down glucose to yield carbon dioxide, water, and as many as 38 ATP molecules.

cellular respiration: electron transport chain

- Most ATP produced here - Final step is cellular respiration. Energy from high-energy electrons = released in previous steps pumps H ions across inner mitochondrial membrane and energy is used to convert ADP to ATP. Electrons combined with oxygen and hydrogen = water.

carbohydrate recommendations

- RDA for children and adults 130 g/day - this provides adequate carbohydrates for the brain by preventing ketosis. - AMDR - range for health intake of carbohydrates is 45-65% of energy. AI range for fiber is 21-38 g/day (25 g/day = young women 19-50 years old) (38 g/day = young men 14-50 years old)

how diabetes is treated

- The goal of diabetes treatment is to keep blood glucose levels within normal ranges - Diet - to avoid rapid or prolonged rise in blood glucose, the diet needs to be carefully planned. - Exercise - regular exercise helps control blood glucose. A change in the amount of exercise a patient participates in may change the amount of food and medication required to keep blood glucose in the normal range - Blood glucose should be monitored regularly. It can be measured using a tiny drop of blood - Medication - insulin is required to treat type 1 diabetes. Blood glucose levels in type 2 diabetes can be managed with a variety of oral medication as well as insulin.

ability of carbohydrates determines fatty acid metabolism

- response to starvation is more severe - the worst is either diabetic or alcohol ketoacidosis - response to low carbohydrate diet is mild ketosis - the brain and nervous system normally only uses glucose for energy, but during starvation adapts to use about 50% ketone bodies for energy.

polysaccharides: starches

- a carbohydrate made of many glucose molecules linked in straight or branching chains. - human digestive enzymes can break the bonds that hold the glucose molecules together - storage form of CHO in PLANTS (amylose = long straight glucose chains)I(amylopectin= branched glucose chains) - accumulates in roots/tubers such as potatoes, sweet potatoes, beets, turnips - accumulates in grain seeds such as wheat, barley, rye - legumes such as lentils, soybeans, pinto beans, and kidney beans

pre diabetes (impaired glucose tolerance)

- a fasting blood glucose levee above the normal range but not high enough to be classified as diabetes.

monosaccharide: fructose

- a monosaccharide that is the primary form of carbohydrate found in fruit. - tastes sweeter than glucose fruits, veggies, and more than half of the sugar in honey - no big rise in blood sugar (use in products for people with diabetes.) - but can cause an increase in blood lipids so limit use. - most in diet as high fructose corn syrup (soft drinks)

fasting hypoglycemia

- abnormal insulin secretion not related to food intake. - can occur in people with diabetes our to over-medication or imbalances between insulin and carbohydrate intake.

the role of alternative sweeteners

- alternative sweetness are also called nonnutritive sweetness. - acceptable daily intakes (ADIs) established by FDA amount per kilogram of body weight can consume safely over a lifetime. - reduce incidence of dental caries. - don't necessarily improve nutrient sensory of diet if people compensate with other junk foods. - help diabetics reduce sugar intake. - weight loss? Questioned because people often compensate energy by consuming more junk foods (empty calories)

lactase

- an enzyme located in the microvilli of the small intestine that breaks the disaccharide lactose into glucose and galactose.

alternative sweeteners: cyclamate

- banned in the US but used in Canada

polysaccharides: glycogen

- carbohydrate made of many glucose molecule slinked together in a highly branched structure. - it is the storage form of carbohydrates in animals and humans - branched structure = quick breakdown - muscle storage = energy glucose = release to blood - liver storage = energy glucose = release to blood for delivery to cells throughout the body. - the amount of glycogen that can be stored in the body is relatively small.

complex carbohydrates: definition and what it includes

- carbohydrates composed of many monosaccharides linked together in straight or branching chains, not sweet to the taste. - oligosaccharides - polysaccharides

indigestible carbohydrates and colon health - carcinogens - mutagens - malignancy

- carcinogens = cancer-causing substances - mutagens = changes in DNA caused by chemicals or physical agents - malignancy = a mast of cells showing uncontrolled growth, a tendency to invade and damage surrounding tissue, and an ability to seed daughter growth to sites remote from the original growth.

making and breaking sugar chains: condensation reaction

- chemical reaction that links two sugar molecules together (dehydration)

making and breaking sugar chains: hydrolysis reaction

- chemical reactions that breaks sugar molecules apart

high fructose corn syrup

- comprises any group of corn syrups that has undergone enzymatic processing to convert its glucose into fructose and has then been mixed with pure corn syrup (100% glucose) to produce a desired sweetness. - also called: isoglucose, maize syrup, glucose/fructose syrup, or glucose-fructose

whole vs. refined carbohydrates

- corn=unrefined CHO source - cornflakes = refined CHO via grinding, cooking, and drying - sugar = refined CHO, process from sugarcane and sugar beets

how can you meet calcium needs with a lactose intolerance?

- dairy products = main source of calcium - cheese, yogurt - divide into smaller portions if tolerated. - tofu, fish with small bones, vegetables - calcium supplements - milk treated with lactase - lactase tablets (take before drinking milk/ milk products)

indigestible carbohydrates and bowel health - hemorrhoids - diverticulosis - constipation

- diets high in fiber and indigestible carbohydrate, can relieve or prevent certain bowel disorders - hemorrhoids = swollen veins in the anal or rectal area - diverticulosis = a condition in which pouches call diverticula protrude from the wall of the large intestine. When these become inflamed, the condition is called diverticulitis, - constipation

carbohydrates and heart disease

- diets high in whole grains provide nutrients including indigestible cholesterol that may reduce the risk of heart disease. - water-soluble fiber binds dietary cholesterol and reduces absorption. - effect of soluble fiber on cholesterol absorption -- without soluble fiber, bile and dietary cholesterol are absorbed. -- with soluble fiber, bile and dietary cholesterol are absorbed.

sucrose

- disaccharide, fructose + glucose, table sugar or white sugar - in sugar cane, sugar beets, honey, and maple syrup - only sweeter in the U.S. that can be called "sugar" as ingredient on a label.

lactose

- disaccharide, glucose + galactose. sugar in milk, also found in ice cream and other dairy products - lactose is only sugar naturally in animal foods - 30% energy in whole cow's milk 40% energy in human milk

maltose

- disaccharide, glucose + glucose; formed during digestion - made when starch is broken down. - sweet taste when bread is held in mouth; salivary amylase breaking down starch to maltose.

alternative sweeteners: neotame

- similar to aspartame, but bond between the two amino acids not easily broken so heat stable and ok for PKU patients. - not sold as table sweeteners. - made form the same two amino acids as aspartame but because the bond between them is harder to break than that bond in aspartame, it is heat stable and can be used in baking. it is used in softdrinks, dairy products, and gum. - IT is 8000x sweeter than sucrose. - ADI: 18 mg/kg of body weight/day.

How do indigestible carbohydrates affect nutrient absorption?

- fiber binds to center in mineral preventing their absorption. - they increase the volume of the intestinal contents and absorb water, forming viscous solutions. This slows nutrient absorption by speeding passage through the GI tract, by decreasing the amount of contact between nutrients and absorptive surface on the small intestine and by reducing contact between digestive enzymes and food. - in the small intestine, the added volume and viscosity slows the absorption of glucose and other nutrients. this can be beneficial because slowing the absorption of glucose reduces fluctuations in blood glucose levels.

dietary fiber

- fiber can be added to processed foods to thicken and reduce fat and calories - pectin = thickens yogurt, forms jams and jellies - CHO gums = in commercially prepared gravies, pudding, reduced fat salad dressings, frozen deserts - pectin and gums also used to mimic texture of fat - insoluble fibers = added to breads/muffins for high fiber and reduced calories.

soluble fibers

- fiber that dissolves in water - absorbs water to form viscous solutions and can be broken down by the intestinal microflora - soluble fiber is beneficial in lowering blood cholesterol - not digested, but bacteria breaks down (produces gas, short chain fatty acids) - pectin, gums - oats, apples, beans, seaweed - good source of soluble fiber includes: legumes, prunes, apricots, raisins, oranges, bananas, oats, apples, eggplant, flaxseed.

insoluble fiber

- fiber that, for the most part, doesn't dissolve in water. - cannot be broken down by bacteria in the large intestine. - insoluble fiber is beneficial in reducing constipation. - from structural parts of plants (cell walls, cellulose, and lignin) - wheat bran, rye bran (cellulose), broccoli (woody fibers) - good sources of insoluble fiber includes: wheat bran, whole wheat bran, broccoli, corn, eggplant, apple skins, nuts, seeds.

Type 1 diabetes

- form of diabetes that is caused by the autoimmune destruction of insulin-producing cells in the pancreas, usually leading to absolute insulin deficiency - previously known as insulin-dependent diabetes or juvenile-onset diabetes. - insulin is no longer made in the body - immune system destroys pancreatic cells that produce insulin. - classified as autoimmune disease.

why are ketones formed?

- formed when low cholesterol, oxaloacetate = on seven, so acetyl CoA cannot enter TCA cycle ( to make CO2 + water + energy) - liver converts it to ketones or ketone bodies erase into blood. - without cholesterol, fatty acids and ketogenic AA cannot be oxidized so make ketones. - normal response to starvation - normal in low cholesterol diets - ketones can equal an energy source (muscles, heart, kidney)(brain > 3 days of fasting) - ketones are excrete in the urine - excess in blod = ketosis - reduced appetite headache, dry mouth, breath - untreated diabetes can increase blood acidity(coma/death)

carbohydrate are the basis of most modern diets. carbohydrates in "while foods" such as ______ are in their ____ state.

- fruit, dairy, and whole grains - natural state

fructose: In the U.S., HFCS is among the sweetness that have partially replaced sucrose table sugar due to:

- government subsides of U.S. corn - an important tariff on foreign sugar, raising the price of sucrose levels above those of the rest of the world making HFCS cost-efficient for many sweeter applications.

how do indigestible carbohydrates increase intestinal gas?

- high oligosaccharides that can't be digested in the stomach or small intestine. They pass into the large intestine where the bacteria live there digest them, producing gas and the byproducts. This gas can cause abdominal discomfort and flatulence. - as with oligosaccharides intestinal gas is byproduct of the bacterial breakdown of fiber and resistant starch. A sudden increase in the fiber content of the diet can cause abdominal discomfort and diarrhea. - sudden fiber increase = abdominal pain, gas, and diarrhea. increase water intake so there is no constipation.

polysaccharides

- long chains of monosaccharides - includes glycogen, starches, and fiber

alternative sweeteners: rebianna

- made from a Stevia plant, is sold as Trivia and pure via, is the newest alternative sweetener on the marker. - a natural sweetener made from the lead of a stevia plant. It is the newest sweeter in the market and is about 300x sweeter than sucrose. - ADI: 12 mg/kg of body weight/day. To exceed the ADI, a 154 lb. person would have to consume more than 30 packets or drink 6 12 oz. cans of rebiana-sweetneed soda.

using my plate to make healthy choices: eat more whole grains, fruits, and vegetables

- make half of your grains whole - don't forget beans - add berries, bananas, or dried fruit to cereal or desserts. - pile veggies on your plate - have more than one vegetable at dinner and try a new fruit

reactive hypoglycemia

- obersecretion of insulin in response to carbohydrate intake - treatmentL frequent small meals including protein

refined grains

- processing grains removes the germ and bran layers - ex: corn flakes or puffed rice - made largely of endosperm, most starch - may be enriched = thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, and iron and fortified with folate. - doesn't mean were going to have everything back. could also be missing fiber. - enriched doesn't include: magnesium, Vitamin E, and some B vitamins or other nutrients of whole grains.

low fiber meal

- rapid digestion, faster absorption, increase concentrated nutrients, more time in the digestive trac

why should we limit added sugars?

- refined sugars make up about 16% of the calories in the American diet. Added sugars are not nutritionally or chemically different from sugars occurring naturally in foods. The only difference is that they have been speared from their plant source and therefore not consumed with all of the fiber, vitamin, minerals, and other substances found in the original plants. - they have a low nutrient denser and are considered empty calories because they provide few nutrient for the number off calories they contain. Ex: 3 kiwis = same calories as a soda but are more nutrient dense because they provide a variety of other nutrients.

indigestible carbohydrates

- resistant starch, fiber, and oligosaccharides are not digested in the small intestine

functions of carbohydrates

- sugars are components of DNA and RNA which are key components of genetic information - central to energy production - sugar lactose in breast milk - attached to proteins and lipids on surface of cells of important signaling information about cells. - part of mucus and cushioning and lubrication in connective tissue.

sugar alcohols

- sweeteners that are structurally related to sugars but provide less energy than monosaccharides and disaccharides because they are not well-absorbed. - health claims don't produce tooth decay, catabolized more slowly than sugars, can be used in sugar-free foods, must be listen in the Nutrition Facts panel. - too much can cause diarrhea. - structurally related to sugars, but provide less energy because not too well absorbed.

using my plate to make healthy choices: limit added sugars

- switch to a 12 oz. can instead of 20 oz. bottle when you grab a soft drink - have a glass or water or low fat milk instead. - use one quarter less sugar in your recipe next time you bake. - snack on fruit instead of a candy bar. - check ingredient lists on breakfast cereal to find the ones that have no added sugar.

types of nonnutritive sweeteners available in the U.S.: sucralose

- the "yellow packet" - heat stable can be used in baked goods. - made from sucrose molecules that have been modified that they cannot be digested or absorbed. - it is 600x sweeter than sucrose. - ADI:5 mg/kg of body weight/day. One packet contains about 12 mg of sucralose. A 154 lb. person could consume 29 packets without exceeding the ADI.

carbohydrate function

- the brain relies almost exclusively on glucose for energy. - glucose is the basic unit of carbohydrate and all digestible carbohydrate is ultimately converted this monosaccharide which the cells use as a fuel for life processes - need steady supply of glucose to cells - blood glucose regulated by the liver - hormones: insulin/glucagon from pancreas.

dental caries

- the decay and deterioration of teeth caused by acid produced when bacteria on the teeth metabolize carbohydrate. - dental caries occur when bacteria that live in the mouth form colonies on the teeth known as plaque. - if the plaque is not brushed or flossed away, the bacteria metabolizes carbohydrates in the moth and create acid. - the acid dissolves tooth enamel and the underlying structures of the teeth and gums. - food that sticks to teeth are the biggest problems. - associated with excess sugar intake.

How do indigestible carbohydrates promote healthy microflora?

- the inhibit the growth of disease causing bacteria and their metabolic by-products may help prevent inflammation in the bowel and potentially protect against colon cancer - acid from breakdown = good bacteria will grow well. (lactobacilli and bifidobacteria)

why does lactose intolerance causes GI distress?

- the lactose isn't digested in the small intestine. - instead, undigested lactose passes into the large intestine where it increases the number of small molecules which draws in water by osmosis. - lactose is rapidly metabolized by intestinal bacteria, producing acids and gas. - together, the increase i fluid the intestine along with the acid and gas causes symptoms that include abdominal distention, flatulence, cramping, and diarrhea

monosaccharide: glucose

- the most important form of carbohydrate fuel used to provide energy in the body. If is the sugar referred to as blood sugar. It rarely occurs as a monosaccharide - usual part of a disaccharide or starch. - glucose is produced via photosynthesis, which uses energy from the sun to convert CO2 to H2O to glucose. - plant most often convert glucose to starch. when humans eat plants, digestion converts the starch back to glucose.

benefits of carbohydrates

- the preferred energy source for most body functions - protein: the nitrogen has to be removed from an amino acid before it can be catabolized for energy - fat: can't be efficiently used by the brain and the nervous system - alcohol: can't be efficiently used by the brain and the nervous storm and may have negative effects.

why low carbohydrate diets promote weight loss

- the rationale of low-carb diets is that foods high in carbohydrates stimulate the release of insulin. - insulin promotes energy storage, mostly from fat. - the more insulin you release, the more fat you store. - low carbohydrate diets cause less insulin to be released. - with low-carb diets, the body produces more ketones. - ketones help suppress the appetite.

using my plate to make healthy choices: putting it all together

- total carbs content is listed in grams and as a percent of the daily value. - total amount of fiber in the product is listed in grams and as percent of the daily value. - the number of grams of sugars listed in the total grams of monosaccharides plus disaccharide in a serving. This number doesn't distinguish between added sugar and the sugar occurring naturally in the food. - high fiber means that the food contains 205 or more of the daily value. - no added sugar or with added sugars means that no sugar-containing ingredient is added during processing.

carbohydrates and weight management

-often blamed for our weight control problems - role of carbohydrate is often misunderstood. - fat adds the most kcals to a meal - baked potato with sour cream: medium potato(160 kcal) and 1 tsp of butter (260 kcal)

simple carbohydrates: definition

a class of carbohydrates, known as sugars, which consist of monosaccharides and disaccharides. - fruits, vegetables, and milk are all examples. - the sugars we add to food such as white table sugar, brown sugar, molasses, and confectioner;s sugar, high fructose corn syrup.

metabolic syndrome

a collection of health risks, including high BP, altered blood lipids, high blood glucose, and a large waist circumstance, that increase the chance of developing heart disease, stroke, and diabetes. - AKA syndrome X, insulin resistance syndrome, and dysmetabolic syndrome.

Diabetes mellitus

a disease caused by either insufficient insulin production or decreased sensitivity of cells to insulin. It results in elevated blood glucose levels. - the leading cause of blindness in the U.S. - accounts for 44% of all new cases of kidney failure - heart disease is the leading cause of death for people with diabetes.

Type 2 diabetes

a form of diabetes characterized by insulin resistance and relative insulin deficiency; previously known as non insulin-dependent diabetes or adult-onset diabetes. - insulin is present but the cells do not response - metabolic syndrom - prediabetes

supplying glucose to body cells: insulin

a hormone secreted by the pancreas that allows the uptake of glucose by body cells and has other metabolic effects such as stimulating protein and fat synthesis of glycogen in the liver and muscles

supplying glucose to body cells: glucagon

a hormone secreted by the pancreas that stimulates the breakdown of liver glycogen and the synthesis of glucose to increase blood sugar

hypoglycemia

a low blood glucose level, usually below 40-50 mg of glucose of glucose per 100 mL of blood

polysaccharides: fiber

a mixture of indigestible complex carbohydrates and lignin that is found in plants - soluble and insoluble - fiber cannot be digested by human enzymes or be absorbed by the human body

glycemic index

a ranking of how a food affects the glycemic response... in relation to a reference food such as white bread or glucose or not based on CHO amount or typical portion.

why protein is broken down to supply blood glucose? ketogenic amino acids

an amino acid that breaks down to corm acetyl-CoA and thus contributes to ketone synthesis

why is protein broken down to supply blood glucose? glycogenic amino acids

an amino acid that can be used to synthesize glucose through gluconeogenesis

glycemic load

calculated by multiplying a food's glycemic index by the grams of available carbohydrates in the food. Take into account how much glucose is in the food - For example: carrots have a high glycemic index, but low glycemic load - this means that you would have to eat a lot of carrots to raise blood glucose.

most meals and snacks consists of a mixture of

protein, cholesterol, fat

oligosaccharides

short chain carbohydrates containing 3-10 sugar units. - some found naturally: beans, legumes, onions, bananas, garlic, artichokes - may not be digested by human enzymes in GI - many pass into colon and are broken down by microform - helps promote healthy GI floor = beneficial effects on GI health - present in human milk: infant stool easier to pass - protects infants from infection causing diarrhea

lactose intolerance

the inability to digest lactose because of a reduction in the levels of the enzyme lactase. It causes symptoms including intestinal gas and bloating after dairy products are consumed.

parts of a whole grain: endosperm

the largest portion of a kernel of grain. it is primarily starch and serves as a food supply for the sprouting seed. also contains most of the kernel's protein along with some vitamins and minerals.

parts of a whole grain: bran

the protective outer layer of whole grains. it is a concentrated source of dietary fiber. Also a good source of many vitamins and minerals.

how glucose provides energy: cellular respiration

the reaction that breaks down carbohydrates, fats, proteins in the presence of oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, water, and ATP.

what happens when certain foods are refined?

they lose a lot of the nutrients and healthy components that they once had.