chapter 5 and 6

descriptive theory.

Broadly speaking, descriptive theories are ones that describe or categorize characteristics of individuals, groups, or situations by abstracting common features observed across multiple manifestations. Descriptive theory plays an important role in qualitative studies. Qualitative researchers often strive to develop conceptualizations of phenomena that are grounded in actual observations. Descriptive theory is sometimes a precursor to predictive and explanatory theories.

taking a concept from another discipline and moving it to nursing to explain a phenomenon is termed _________.

Concept derivation

Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1997, 2001),

which is sometimes called self-efficacy theory, offers an explanation of human behavior using the concepts of self-efficacy and outcome expectations. Self-efficacy concerns people's belief in their own capacity to carry out particular behaviors

conceptual integration.

This means that the methods are appropriate for the research questions, the questions are consistent with existing evidence, and there is a plausible conceptual rationale for hypotheses to be tested or for the design of an intervention.

Critical theory is

a paradigm that involves a critique of society and societal processes and structures

Conceptual models, conceptual frameworks, or conceptual schemes (we use the terms interchangeably)

are a less formal means of organizing phenomena than theories. Like theories, conceptual models deal with abstractions (concepts) that are assembled by virtue of their relevance to a common theme. Conceptual models, however, lack the deductive system of propositions that purport to explain relationships among concepts. Conceptual models provide a perspective regarding interrelated phenomena but are more loosely structured than theories. Conceptual models can serve as springboards for generating hypotheses, but conceptual models in their entirety are not formally "tested."

Middle-range theories

attempt to explain such phenomena as decision-making, stress, comfort, and unpleasant symptoms. Middle-range theories are more specific and more amenable to empirical testing than grand theories (Peterson & Bredow, 2017). Literally dozens of middle-range theories have been developed by or used by nurses, a few of which we briefly describe in this chapter.

Health Promotion Model (HPM)

focuses on explaining health-promoting behaviors, using a wellness orientation (Murdaugh et al., 2019). According to the model (see Figure 6.1), health promotion entails activities directed toward developing resources that maintain or enhance a person's well-being. The model embodies several theoretical propositions that can be used to develop interventions and to gain insight into health behaviors.

Explanatory theory specifies relationships between study variables, in this case, anxiety and blood pressure. Data is gathered through self-report or observation. Descriptive theory does not explain why something happened, and predictive theory makes a prediction about the relationship of study variables, which is not the case in this situation. Middle-range theories are specific theories that easily lend themselves to empirical testing.

-Descriptive theories are inductive in nature. Specific observations of individuals, groups, or communities are made, and the reasoning is applied to more general principles -Explanatory theory studies relationships between variables, which in this study are social support and health of older adults -A theoretical framework describes the main variables in a study design and how they relate to each other. Other topics on this list relate to different sections of a research study. -A descriptive theory looks at a phenomenon, to describe what it is about, without exploring why or how it is related to other factors. In this case, the theory focuses on the grieving process -Predictive theories are tested using experimental designs, testing predictions about relationships and outcomes -Jean Watson focuses on the phenomenon of caring using detailed descriptions of ten primary carative factors. She emphasizes the interpersonal relationship between nurse and client

Research tests theories, and a study either supports a theory or refutes a theory. Testing a theory is useful in guiding interpretation of the results and supporting the theory—not proving that the theory is correct. Theories from disciplines in addition to nursing are appropriate. Both quantitative and qualitative designs use a theoretical framework.

-It is true that frameworks may be implicit or explicit and that all research studies have a framework—although not all studies clearly (explicitly) state the framework that was used to guide the study. The terms may be used interchangeably, though a theoretical framework is based on a theory while a conceptual framework is based on a conceptual model. Qualitative studies clearly state a framework while quantitative studies often have an implicit framework. -Both models and theories are useful in generating hypotheses. Models are not as structured as theories. Models use few words and rely on concept maps to display information. Both theories and models deal with abstractions, not concrete ideas. -Middle-range theory focuses on explaining specific phenomena, such as caring, stress, or coping. Grand theory, also called macrotheory, is broad in scope and focuses on nursing as a whole. Grounded theory is a type of research, which relies on observation to develop a theory.

The basic format for writing a scientific paper is the IMRaD Format: I = Introduction M = Methods R = Results a = and D = Discussion

.

Describing and assigning nomenclature to a previously unrecognized or nameless concept based on a review of related empirical and conceptual contributions to nursing practice is termed _________;

Concept synthesis

most prominent sociologic theory in grounded theory is symbolic interaction (or interactionism), which has three underlying premises (Blumer, 1986).

First, humans act toward things based on the meanings that the things have for them. Second, the meaning of things arises out of the interaction humans have with other humans. Last, meanings are handled in, and modified through, an interpretive process in dealing with the things humans encounter.

Which section of the literature review includes a concise presentation of the current knowledge base for the research problem and the gaps in the knowledge base?

Review of empirical literature

practice theory (sometimes called situation-specific theory or micro theory).

Such theories are highly specific, narrow in scope, and have an action orientation. They are not always associated with research, although grounded theory studies can be a source of situation-specific theory

Mishel's Uncertainty in Illness Theory (Mishel, 1990)

focuses on the concept of uncertainty—a person's inability to determine the meaning of illness-related events. According to this theory, people develop subjective appraisals to assist them in interpreting the experience of illness and treatment. Uncertainty occurs when people are unable to recognize and categorize stimuli. Uncertainty results in the inability to obtain a clear conception of the situation, but a situation appraised as uncertain will mobilize individuals to use their resources to adapt to the situation.

The Health Belief Model (HBM; Becker, 1978)

has become a popular framework in nursing studies focused on patient compliance and preventive healthcare practices. The model postulates that health-seeking behavior is influenced by a person's perception of a threat posed by a health problem and the value associated with actions aimed at reducing the threat. The major components of the HBM include perceived susceptibility, perceived severity, perceived benefits and costs, motivation, and enabling or modifying factors.

Transtheoretical Model (Prochaska et al., 2002; Prochaska & Velicer, 1997)

has been the basis of numerous interventions designed to change people's problem behavior (e.g., alcohol abuse). The core construct around which other dimensions are organized is stages of change, which conceptualizes a continuum of motivational readiness to change dysfunctional behavior. The five stages of change are precontemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, and maintenance. Studies have shown that successful self-changers use different processes at each stage, suggesting the desirability of interventions that are individualized to the person's stage of readiness for change. The model incorporates a series of mediating variables, one of which is self-efficacy

Adaptation Model,

humans are viewed as biopsychosocial adaptive systems who cope with environmental change through the process of adaptation (Roy & Andrews, 2009). Within the human system, there are four subsystems: physiologic/physical, self-concept/group identity, role function, and interdependence. These subsystems constitute adaptive modes that provide mechanisms for coping with environmental stimuli and change. Health is viewed as both a state and a process of becoming integrated and whole that reflects the mutuality of persons and environment. The goal of nursing, according to this model, is to promote client adaptation. Nursing also regulates stimuli affecting adaptation. Nursing interventions usually take the form of increasing, decreasing, modifying, removing, or maintaining internal and external stimuli that affect adaptation. Roy's Adaptation Model has been the basis for several middle-range theories and dozens of studies.

Ethnographers often adopt one of two cultural theories:

ideational theories, which suggest that cultural conditions stem from mental activity and ideas, or materialistic theories, which view material circumstances (e.g., resources, money, production) as the source of cultural developments.

Some basic concepts in Orem's Self-Care Deficit Theory

include self-care, self-care deficit, and self-care agency (Orem et al., 2003). Self-care activities are what people do on their own behalf to maintain their life, health, and well-being. The ability to perform self-care is called self-care agency. Orem's universal self-care requisites to maintain health include air, food, water, elimination, activity and rest, solitude and social interaction, hazard prevention, and promotion of normality. Self-care deficit occurs when self-care agency is not adequate to meet a person's self-care demands. Orem's theory explains that patients need nursing care when their demands for self-care outweigh their abilities.

theory development based on

induction—that is, reasoning from particular observations and facts to broader generalizations.

A narrative literature review

is one in which the findings from the studies under review are integrated using the judgments of the reviewers, rather than through statistical integration—as in a meta-analysis. Until meta-analytic techniques were developed, all reviews were narrative reviews.

Grand theories or macrotheories

purport to describe and explain large segments of human experience.

theory

refers to an abstract generalization that explains how phenomena are interrelated. In this definition, a theory embodies at least two concepts that are related in a manner that the theory purports to explain. The purpose of traditional theories is to explain or predict phenomena.

A framework is

the overall conceptual underpinnings of a study. Not every study is based on a formal theory or conceptual model, but every study has a framework—that is, a conceptual rationale.

substantive theory (conceptualizations of the target phenomenon under study) and

theory that reflects a conceptualization of human inquiry.

Schematic models (or conceptual maps),

which are visual representations of some aspect of reality, use concepts as building blocks but with a minimal use of words.