Chapter 5 - Grains & Legumes

The endosperm of bread wheat is..., unlike the endosperm of most grains.

The endosperm of bread wheat is *rich in protein*

Soybean nickname

"Cow without bones", because of its *range of versatile products,* including soy milk and imitation meat

Legumes nickname

"Poor man's protein"

The country that is the primary producer of most legumes

*India* is the primary producer of most legumes

The first country to use sugarcane to make sugar. From this country, the methods for growing sugarcane and processing sugar were transferred first to ____________.

*India* was probably the first country to use sugarcane to make sugar. From India, the methods for growing and processing sugarcane were transferred to *China*.

This grain is utilized in skin care products, cosmetics, and lotions, using its talc.

*Oats* are used in making skin care products, cosmetics, and lotions. *Oat talc* is the form of oats used.

The species that Gregor Mendel used in studies of genetics

*Pisum sativum*, garden peas (green, sweet, sugar snap, and snow) with a soft, edible shell

The activity of removing the grains from the bracts, freeing it for human consumption.

*Threshing* is the activity of removing the grains from the bracts (glumes), which frees the grain for human consumption

Differentiate between whole grains and polished grains

-A whole grain includes the *bran, endosperm, and the embryo* of the grain, making it a healthy staple. It is *everything in the grain except the lodicules and chaff* -A polished grain has undergone *pearling,* by which the bran has been abraded off, along with the highly proteinaceous and fatty aleurone layer, and embryo. In a polished grain, what remains is the *endosperm*, which is chiefly starch and little protein.

Grains that are not "real" grains. What is the fruit type of these false grains.

-Amaranth -Buckwheat -Quinoa -The fruit type of these false grains is an *achene*. -All are rich in protein but also contain no gluten

Two members of Poaceae that do not yield grains but are still useful. Briefly describe the uses for these grasses.

-Bamboo does not yield a grain but its stalks are valued for wood products. -Sugarcane also does not produce a grain, but its thick, juicy stems produce juice that can be clarified to produce raw sugar and molasses. Its leaves and crushed stems are used as animal feed and fuel.

Describe the vegetative qualities of corn (Zea mays), including: -Relative protein content of grain -Flowers -Ear -Husks -Silks

-Corn contains *less protein than wheat* -Flowers are *unisexual* and plants are *monoecious* - both male and female flowers can occur on a single plant. -Each *ear* of corn is a mature *female inflorescence*. -The husks of corn are *large, tightly packed bract leaves* that surround the entire ear -The silks that protrude out of the husk are *the long style of the female inflorescence*

Name five products of corn

-Corn starch, which can be used as a thickener for soups and sauces -Biodegradable plastic and packing material -Tortillas and tortilla chips made from corn flour -Ethanol in gasohol, used as fuel -Used to make alcoholic beverages, such as chicha (Peruvian) and bourbon -Corn oil

Describe the vegetative structure of peanuts

-Herbaceous, trailing stem -Oval-shaped leaves that occur in *two opposite pairs* -Yellow flowers -Ovary stalk (gynophore) that grows toward gravity/the ground after fertilization, burying the developing fruit in the soil -Pods mature underground until they are pulled out at harvest time

List and briefly describe the three major types of cultivated rice, Oryza sativa.

-Indica - originating in India. Long-grains and non-sticky after cooking. -Japonica - originating in Japan, short-grain, sticks after cooking -Javanica - Indonesian, yields a *large* grain.

Describe the ethnobotanical significance of peanuts, including: -Country/region of origin and its use there -Major grower today -Popularization in North America (note important human contributors to its popularity/usage, origin of peanut butter, etc.) -The largest use of peanuts in the U.S.

-Peanuts are native to the Peruvian region of South America. In Peru, archaeological excavation has revealed ancient *crafts and jewelry displaying a peanut motif* -*China* is the major grower of peanuts today -The peanut was popularized by African people in North America. -It is grown extensively in southern U.S., in part due to the *enterprising efforts of chemist George Washington Carver*. Carver discovered over 300 uses for the peanut and introduced crop rotation using peanuts. -Peanut butter was developed by a St. Louis physician and targeted as a soft, protein-rich paste for sick or elderly patients who had difficulty chewing normal food. -The largest use of peanuts in the U.S. is in the manufacture of peanut butter. Less than half of peanuts in the U.S. are used in candies and snacks.

Briefly describe the method by which sugarcane is propagated. Include mention of the *sett* in your description.

-Rather than being grown from seeds, sugarcane is propagated from *cuttings*. Modern propagation methods start by using a *sett*, which is a part of the lower stem with lateral buds, which grow into new stalks, and tissues for adventitious roots, which initially support the plant. -Stems can be harvested every year until the yield becomes too small and new setts must be planted to replace the old stalks.

Outline the ethnobotanical significance of grain, including: -Origin of cultivation -Symbolism -Prevalent farming techniques -A medical condition that can result from unbalanced consumption

-Rice cultivation began in the Middle East -In Southeast Asia, rice is sacred, and a symbol of abundance and fertility. It is thrown at weddings -Rice is grown in *paddies*, flat fields flooded with standing water or as *upland rice*, which utilizes sloped or flat fields and just the amount of water that is sufficient for growth. -*Beriberi*, or *thiamine deficiency* can result from consuming polished rice as a main source of energy without the addition of vitamins from vegetables. It causes nerve inflammation.

Three general products made from soybeans:

-Textured vegetable protein (TVP; "fake meat") -Oil -A food additive

Rice cultivation varies based on *where it is being grown.* Name the two types of cultivation discussed.

-The *paddy* - in which rice is grown in standing water or waterlogged soil (The most prevalent method of rice farming in South and East Asia) -*Upland rice farming* - in which a normal/sufficient amount of water is used and rice is grown on slopes or flat fields. (employed in Brazil)

Describe the vegetative structure of the typical grass floret

-The typical grass flower is bisexual, borne on a branched inflorescence called a *panicle*. -Each panicle consists of spikelets with several *florets.* *So: Panicle (inflorescence) > spikelets > several florets* *Each floret consists of:* -A reduced perianth called *lodicules*—3 stamen and a *superior ovary* with a *single ovule* and *short style* that has 2 feathery *stigmas.* -The floret is surrounded by two bracts (also called glumes or chaff)

Describe the parts of a grass floret: -Lodicule -Stamen -Ovary (superior or inferior) -Ovule(s) -Style and stigmas

-Typical grass floret has a *reduced perianth called lodicules, which appear as small scales beneath the ovary. -There are *3 well-developed stamen* -A superior ovary -A single ovule (develops into a single seed) -A *short style* with *2 feathery stigmas at the end*

Describe the ethnobotanical significance of wheat, including: -Origin -Spread to the New World -Allusion in the Bible -Uses -The most extensively grown types of wheat

-Wheat was first cultivated in the Mediterranean region, in the Fertile Crescent -The Spanish brought wheat to the New World in the 1500s -Wheat is an ancient grain alluded to in the Bible as the *grain used by Adam and Eve to make their first bread* -Wheat is used to make bread, cereal, pastries. Wheat flour is a major ingredient in most food items, from pasta to flatbreads. -The most extensively grown types of wheat are *bread wheat* and *durum wheat*

Wild rice is grown in ______________. It is also known by the name ____________.

-Wild rice is a tall grass that grows in shallow, still waters. -It is also known as *water oats*, and is the *state grain of Minnesota.* -Wild rice is expensive due to high demand

What percentage of the world's vegetation belongs to the grass family (Poaceae)?

25% of the world's vegetation is part of the Poaceae family.

State the percentage of oats grown in the U.S. that gets used as animal feed

95% of oats grown in the U.S. gets used as animal feed

Define cereal grain

A *cereal* grain is the dry, edible fruit of certain grasses, members of the family Poaceae.

Gluten

A complex of proteins in the wheat grain, which helps the wheat dough rise when making bread.

Peas and beans are considered legumes. Why?

A legume is a fruit that occurs as a pod and splits along two sides/sutures when mature.

A whole grain is everything in a grain except:

A whole grain is everything in the grain except the *chaff* and *lodicules*

Ancient Romans considered this grain only as food for animals and referred to it as poor people's food.

Ancient Romans considered *oats* suitable only for animals, and used it primarily to feed horses. Oats were considered poor people's food.

The "Broom Corn Capital of the World"

Arcola, Illinois

Major cultivator of sugar cane

Brazil

Brown rice is brown because... Compared to white rice, brown rice is ____________.

Brown rice is brown because it retains its *bran*. Compared to white rice, brown rice is *healthier*.

By the 1700s, approximately how many African people had been enslaved and transported to work sugarcane fields in the West Indies?

By the 1700s, approximately *16 thousand* African people had been enslaved and forced to work in sugarcane fields.

The leading cultivator of wheat

China is the leading cultivator of wheat

State where corn was originally domesticated. With which cultures is it closely associated?

Corn was originally domesticated in *Mexico*. It is closely associated with the cultures of the Maya, Incas, and Aztecs, and with Native American life ("Three Sisters")

The four most important cereal grains, in order of decreasing importance are

From greatest importance to lesser importance: -Rice -Wheat -Corn (maize) -Sorghum

Locust bean gum

Derived from ground carob seeds. It is used as a thickening agent with uses in ice cream, cheese, and salad dressings.

Special/distinguishing features of Fabaceae as a family

Distinguishing features of Fabaceae (Faboideae) include: -Leaves are *compound* and usually pinnate or trifoliate leaf composition -Flowers that are butterfly shaped and zygomorphic (symmetrical along only one plane) -The roots of legumes form *mutualistic symbiotic associations with nitrogen-fixing bacteria* that take atmospheric nitrogen and convert it to a form that is usable by the legume plant

Fabaceae is a large family, subdivided into subfamilies based on differences in ________________.

Fabaceae is subdivided into families based on *flower structure*

True or false: multi-grain bread is always made from all "real" or true grains.

False, a multi-grain bread is likely a *mix of grains, pseudo grains, and assorted plant seeds* that are counted as grains.

For vegetarians, __________ are the main source of protein.

For vegetarians, *pulses are the main source of protein*

List and briefly describe the makeup and function of the *three main layers of grain anatomy*

Grain anatomy: -*Bran* - the fruit wall, which is fused with the seed coat. Protects the seed. -*Endosperm* - mostly starch, sometimes with some protein. Energy for the seed. -*Germ* - the nourishment for the seed

Describe the type of fruit that grains exemplify.

Grains are *dry, single-seeded, indehiscent* fruits, known as *caryopses*.

Grains are also known as

Grains are also known as *caryopses*

Panicle

Grass inflorescence

Describe the features of grass plants (4).

Grass plants: -are mostly *herbaceous* -have *round stems* -have *conspicuous nodes* -have *hollow internodes*

Grass stems are ________, with conspicuous ______________ and ____________ internodes.

Grass stems are *round*, with conspicuous *nodes* and *hollow internodes*.

In North America, soybeans have been referred to as a _________________ crop, due to their surge in popularity seemingly *overnight*.

In N. America, soybeans have been referred to as a *Cinderella crop* due to their sudden transformation in popularity. **Initially gained little attention after being introduced to the west in the 18th century, until the heated plants proved safe for animal consumption.

Leaves of grasses are usually __________ with a _____________ base attached around half of the internode.

Leaves of grasses are usually *linear* with a *sheathing base* that attaches around half of the internode.

Define legume

Legumes are *dry, dehiscent fruit pods* of the dicot family Fabaceae that split along 2 sutures.

Legumes are an excellent source of

Legumes are an excellent source of *high quality protein*

Legume family and previous family name

Legumes are of the family Fabaceae, previously (traditionally) named *Leguminosae*

Forage legumes. List some common forage legumes and the one that is nicknamed "King of the forage legumes."

Legumes that are given as feed to animals. -Common forage legumes are *alfalfa, white or pink clovers, and sweet clover." -Alfalfa is referred to as King of the legumes because of its *ancient history as a forage crop grown extensively around the world.*

Lentils are a type of ________. They are derived from the species ________ ________________.

Lentils are a type of *pulse* derived from the species *Lens culinaris*.

Lentils are native to the _____________ and used extensively in _____________ cuisine, as well as Indian.

Lentils are native to the *Near East* and used extensively in *Mediterranean cuisine*, as well as Indian

Is Poaceae a monocot or dicot family?

Poaceae, the family of grasses, is a monocotyledonous family.

Why do major crops fields grow legumes as alternative crops?

Major crop fields grow legumes as alternative crops because of the *nitrogen-fixing bacteria in their root nodules,* which convert atmospheric nitrogen into a form that is usable by plants and is in fact needed by plants in large quantities by growing plants. When the legumes are harvested, the legume root system leaves behind biologically available nitrogen which is depleted after other crops have been grown on the soil.

Fermented soybean products, which have become widespread in the western world due to the popularity of Asian cuisine

Miso, tempeh, and tofu, which have become widespread in the western world due to the popularity of Asian cuisine

More land is dedicated to ____________ crops than to all other cultivated crops. Two of these type of crop are _____________ and ____________, which are grown on horse farms.

More land is dedicated to *forage crops* than to all other crops cultivated. These include *Kentucky blue grass* and *clover*, which are grown on horse farms.

Most grass flowers are _____________. They are borne on branched inflorescences. The name of these branched inflorescences is ______________.

Most grass flowers are *bisexual*. The branched inflorescences on which most grass flowers are borne is called the *panicle.*

State what oats are a good source of that makes them valuable in lowering cholesterol

Oats are a good source of *soluble and insoluble fiber*, which is valuable in lowering cholesterol

Why can't oats be used in making bread directly? Sorghum flour is unsuitable for making bread for the same reason.

Oats cannot be used in making bread directly because they have very little gluten. Sorghum flour also does not contain gluten, so it is unsuitable for bread baking, since gluten allows dough to rise when baked.

U.S. city with a statue of a peanut

Oklahoma boasts its cultivation of peanuts with a peanut statue in Durant

Rice binomial

Oryza sativa

Nicknames for peanut

Peanut nicknames include *groundnut* and *goober* (a name that originated in West Africa)

Pellegra

Pellegra is *niacin deficiency*, a condition characterized by *dementia, diarrhea, and dermatitis*. It can occur in people whose diets consist mostly of *corn without the addition of missing nutrients*.

Monocotyledenous (monocot)

Plants, such as grasses, with *embryos that consist of a single seed leaf.*

Polishing (or pearling) is the process of... What remains after pearling?

Polishing is the process of *removing* the layers surrounding the endosperm, including *the bran and germ.* What remains after pearling is a refined grain.

The process that results in a refined grain

Polishing/pearling

Describe what allows pulses like lentils to keep well in storage for such a long time.

Pulses (dried legume seeds) are able to keep in storage for a long time because they have a *low moisture content* and *dry seed coat*.

Pulses

Pulses are *dried, edible legume seeds*

What makes raw soybeans unpalatable?

Raw soybeans are unpalatable due to the presence of *trypsin*, an enzyme that interferes with the *digestion of other proteins*

Refined grains

Refined grains are grain foods that are made with only the endosperm of the fruit.

When sugarcane was brought to the New World by Columbus, its cultivation relied on exploiting a huge amount of labor from enslaved African people. This led to the establishment of ________________ (3 words) between the _________ and other countries.

The exploitation of the labor of enslaved people led to the establishment of *sugar triangular trades* between the *West Indies and other countries*.

The staple grain that feeds more people worldwide than any other grain crop

Rice - the grain that feeds more people worldwide than any other grain crop.

Rice grains lack a ______.

Rice grains lack a chaff (lemma and palea - the husk that surrounds the floret).

List the main reasons sorghum is cultivated other than its grain.

Sorghum is cultivated: -for syrup used in making molasses -for its stem and leaves, which are forage for cattle -for its grain, which is used similarly to wheat in Africa and India -for its highly branched inflorescences, which are used to make whisk brooms

State the plant that sorghum resembles morphologically. How does sorghum differ from this plant?

Sorghum resembles corn morphologically, but has *bisexual flowers* on terminal inflorescences.

This crop is the primary ingredient in soy milk and soy sauce, and is considered sacred in China.

Soybeans - soy milk, soy sauce, and considered sacred in China

What do soybeans contain that is used as a food additive?

Soybeans are a source of *lecithin*, a *fat* that is useful for treating memory disorders

Sugarcane is a member of Poaceae, but does not yield _____________. It is similar to the grain-yielding grass ___________.

Sugarcane is not a *grain-yielding grass*, but it is a member of Poaceae. It is similar to *Sorghum*

These grains are 1/150 the size of wheat kernels

Teff grains are 1/150 the size of wheat kernels

Beriberi

the thiamin-deficiency disease; characterized by nerve inflammation and muscular weakness. It is caused by diets dominated by rice and few vitamin rich vegetables.

The American sugar triangle

The American sugar triangle involved New England as the northern point, West Africa, and the West Indies -The countries of the West Indies shipped raw sugar to New England refineries -Merchants sent the rum made from raw sugar in the sugar refineries to Africa to buy African people, who were enslaved. -Enslaved African people were then forcibly transported to the West Indies to work in sugar fields

The dried stems of oats are known as ________. It is useful as ______________ because it is soft and absorbent.

The dried stems of oats are known as *straw*. Straw is useful as *animal bedding* since it is soft and absorbent.

Cereal

The edible grain of certain members of Poaceae (grass family)

Edible grains are known as __________ grains.

The edible grains of certain grasses are known as *cereal grains*

The general name given to lentils in India, as well as the name used to refer to curried, saucy dishes made of lentils.

The general name for lentils in India is *Dhal*. Dhal also refers to curried, saucy dishes made primarily of lentils.

Chaff

The husk of a grain (made up of the lemma and palea). It is the part that surrounds the floret and is generally thrown away

The legume with the third highest level of protein by weight of any legume. It is after _________ and __________.

The legume with the third highest level of protein by weight is *lentils*. Lentils are after *soybeans* and *hemp seeds*.

The major branch or stem of a grass is called the ____________.

The major branch or stem of a grass is called the *culm*.

The methods of growing sugarcane were transferred first from __________ to ___________.

The methods of growing sugarcane and processing sugar were transferred first from India to China.

The most extensively grown food crops are grains. They are:

The most extensively grown food crops are *rice, corn, and wheat*.

The only grain we discuss that is native to North America. It is the state grain of ______________.

The only grain discussed that is native to N.A. is *wild rice*. It is the state grain of *Minnesota*.

The pericarp and seed coat of grains are... and form a structure called _____________

The pericarp and seed coat of grains are *fused tightly together* and form a structure called *bran.*

The rice grain is able to retain its shape even after being cooked in boiling water due to its...

The rice grain retains its shape after cooking due to its *cellulosic wall*.

The root system of grasses is ____________.

The root system of grasses is *fibrous*.

Bran

The skin of the grain, formed from the tight fusion of the seed coat with the pericarp.

Lodicule

The small scales at the base of a grain floret - essentially a *reduced perianth.*

The source of corn oil

The source of corn oil is the *embryo of the grain*

State the species name of peanuts. This name alludes to...

The species name for peanuts is *hypogaea, meaning under the earth.* It alludes to the growth behavior of the peanut plant, which is gravitropic, growing toward the soil and eventually burying the fertilized ovaries underground, where they develop into mature legumes. *In short: the structure and maturation of of the peanut while buried underground is the basis for its species name*

The subfamily of Fabaceae that provides most of our vegetable protein. This protein is contained within the plants' ______ and _______.

The subfamily *Faboideae* provides most of our vegetable protein, contained within the plants' *pods and seeds*

Millet: name and state the beneficial qualities of the two kinds of millet discussed

The two kinds of millet discussed: *pearl millet* and *finger millet* -Pearl millet is *drought resistance* and has a number of health benefits. -Finger millet is high in *protein and amino acids* and used in *diabetes management and weight loss* -Both pearl and finger millet are *gluten free*

Differentiate between the two types of peanuts.

The two types of peanuts are *Virginia and Spanish* -Virginia peanuts are longer, with three to four parts, and lower oil content. They are roasted and used as snack items. -Spanish peanuts are shorter, with two seeds and more oil.

The word "carat," the unit for the weight of diamonds, derives from the name of this legume. This references...

The word "carat" derives from *carob*. This references the *use of carob seeds as units of weight for gemstones in ancient times* due to their *uniform size*.

Husk

Tightly packed bract leaves surrounding an ear of corn

Triticale is also known by this name, and is an artificial hybrid of...

Triticale is also known as *Triticosecale* and is a *hybrid of wheat and rye*

Wheat binomial

Triticum monococcum

True or false: most modern sugarcanes are cultivars of natural hybrids

True, most modern sugarcanes are cultivars of natural hybrids

True or false: the grain is actually the entire dry fruit, not just the seed

True. The grain is the entire dry fruit, not just the seed.

Wheat flour is used in many cultural cuisines, ranging from Italian pastas to Indian flatbread. For this reason, wheat is nicknamed...

Wheat is nicknamed the *staff of life*

Briefly explain why whole grains become rancid with age. Polished grains have a ___________ shelf life.

Whole grains become rancid with age because the *bran and germ contain some fat*, which causes the grain to go bad with time. Polished grains have a *longer shelf life* than whole grains.

Within the bran layer and surrounding the endosperm exists the _______________ layer. Describe its makeup and function.

Within the bran layer and surrounding the endosperm is the *aleurone layer.* -The aleurone layer contains *protein and fats* and aids in *germination by breaking down the starchy endosperm* into simple, usable sugars

Corn binomial

Zea mays