chapter 5 psychology
Elavorative Rehearsal
-a form of working with information that helps transfer information from short-term memory to long-term memory
If Ebbinghaus calculated a savings score of 10 percent, then he took _____ trial(s) to initially learn a list of nonsense syllables and _____ trial(s) to relearn the list.
10;9
Our short-term memory capacity is ____ ± 2 chunks. 3 5 7 9
7
chunk
A meaningful unit in a person's memory.
recognition
A measure of long-term memory retrieval that only requires the identification of the information in the presence of retrieval cues. Identifying items thst hsave neen previously learned as on multiple choice and matching tests
free recall task
A memory task in which a list of items is presented one at a time and then the participant is free to recall them in any order. Experimental procedure in which participants are given a list of words one at a time, then asked to recall them in any order they wish Primacy effect Recency effect
distractor task
A memory task in which a small amount of information is briefly presented and then the participant is distracted from rehearsing the information for a variable period of time, after which the participant has to recall the information. - People are given a small amount of information (e.g., three unrelated consonants such as CWZ). - Immediate distraction is used to deter concentration on the information for a brief time period (by counting backward aloud by 3's). - Information recall is gathered. - Maintenance rehearsal is used to keep information in short-term memory.
memory span task
A memory task in which the participant is given a series of items one at a time and then has to recall the items in the order in which they were presented. - Tests for the capacity of short-term memory by giving a series of items one at a time in a given order
method of loci
A mnemonic in which sequential pieces of information to be remembered are encoded by associating them with sequential locations in a very familiar room or place and then the pieces of information are retrieved by mentally going around the room (place) and retrieving the piece at each location.
peg-word system
A mnemonic in which the items in a list to be remembered are associated with the sequential items in a memorized jingle and then the list is retrieved by going through the jingle and retrieving the associated items.
working memory
A more detailed version of short-term memory that includes the mechanisms that allow short-term memory to accomplish its tasks.
amnesic
A person with severe memory deficits following brain surgery or injury
interference theory
A theory of forgetting that proposes that forgetting is due to other information in memory interfering and thereby making the to-be-remembered information inaccessible.
storage decay theory
A theory of forgetting that proposes that forgetting is due to the decay of the biological representation of the information and that periodic usage of the information will help to maintain it in storage. - Suggests that forgetting occurs because of a problem in the storage of the information
encoding failure theory
A theory of forgetting that proposes that forgetting is due to the failure to encode the information into long-term memory. - Contends that sometimes forgetting is not really forgetting, but rather that the information never entered long-term memory in the first place
cue-dependent theory
A theory of forgetting that proposes that forgetting is due to the unavailability of the retrieval cues necessary to locate the information in long-term memory. -Posits that people forget because the cues necessary for retrieval are not available - Suggests information is in memory but inaccessible - Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) phenomenon
levels of processing theory
A theory of information processing in memory that assumes that semantic processing, especially elaborative semantic processing, leads to better long-term memory. three levels of information physical - appears acoustic sounds semantic means
elaborative rehearsal
A type of rehearsal in short-term memory in which incoming information is related to information from long-term memory to encode it into long-term memory. - contents it is easier to remember information that you have related to yourself - suggests such connections provide more retrieval cues and lend more meaning to the new information
maintenance rehearsal
A type of rehearsal in short-term memory in which the information is repeated over and over again in order to maintain it.
temporal intergration procedure
An experimental procedure in which two meaningless visual patterns that produce a meaningful pattern if integrated are presented sequentially with the time delay between their presentations varied. - Involves giving two random meaningless dot patterns sequentially at the same visual location with a brief time delay between the two presentations - Creates a meaningful pattern when the two patterns are integrated somewhere in the memory system - Time delay between the two presentations must be no longer than one second or no meaningful pattern can be perceived
Sperling's full-report procedure
An experimental procedure in which, following the brief presentation of a matrix of unrelated consonants, the participant has to attempt to recall all of the letters in the matrix - Participants had to report the entire matrix. - Participants sensed the entire matrix but could not report all 9 letters.
Sperling's partial-report procedure
An experimental procedure in which, following the brief presentation of a matrix of unrelated consonants, the participant is given an auditory cue about which row of the matrix to recall. -Participants had to report only one row of the matrix. - An immediate auditory cue resulted in successful recall; a one-second delay resulted in poorer recall.
Explain what the method-of-loci mnemonic and the peg-word system mnemonic have in common.
Both mnemonics relate the new information to a well-known sequence. In each mnemonic you step through the sequence and retrieve the list item tied to that step. In the case of the method of loci, sequential locations within a well-known room or place are used, whereas in the peg-word system, the steps are part of a well-learned jingle (one is a bun, two is a shoe, . . .). Thus, both mnemonics use elaborative rehearsal.
Ebbinghaus early study on Memory
Conducted first experimental studies on human memory more than 100 years ago using the relearning method Mastered and relearned list of nonsense syllables Computed a savings score Concluded that the "forgetting curve" reveals that most forgetting occurs in the first two days after learning material
Explain why elaborative encoding is more effective than just memorizing.
Elaborative encoding is more effective than memorizing because the process of elaboration ties the new information to older, well-known information. This older information provides many good retrieval cues for the new information. Thus, elaborative encoding provides both more retrieval cues and better ones than memorizing.
Explain how the four major theories of forgetting differ with respect to the availability versus accessibility of the forgotten information
Encoding failure theory and storage decay theory assume the forgotten information is not available in long-term memory. Both the interference and cue-dependent theories of forgetting assume it is still available but not accessible.
semantic memory
Explicit memory for factual knowledge.
episodic memory
Explicit memory for personal experiences.
Schemas
Frameworks for our knowledge about people, objects, events, and actions that allow us to organize and interpret information about our world. - Allow more efficient information encoding and retrieving - Can lead people to "misremember" information so that it is more consistent with personal schemas
procedural memories
Implicit memory for cognitive and motor tasks that have a physical procedural aspect to them.
Explain the difference between recall and recognition as methods to measure retrieval.
In recall, the information has to be reproduced. In recognition, the information only has to be identified.
explicit (declarative) memory
Long-term memory for factual knowledge and personal experiences. This type of memory requires a conscious effort to remember and entails making declarations about the information remembered. two types of explicit memories semantic and episodic
implicit (nondeclarative) memory
Long-term memory for procedural tasks, classical conditioning, and primary effects. This type of memory does not require conscious awareness or the need to make declarations about the information remembered. - ltm that influences behavior that does not require conscious awareness or declarative statements
mood-dependent memory
Long-term memory retrieval is best when a person's mood state at the time of encoding and retrieval of the information is the same. - Demonstrates that memory is better when a person's mood is the same during encoding and retrieval
effortful processing
Memory processing that occurs consciously and requires attention
automatic processing
Memory processing that occurs subconsciously and does not require attention.
infantile/child amnesia
Our inability as adults to remember events that occurred in our lives before about 3 years of age.
Which statement is NOT true of reconstruction in memory retrieval? Reconstruction requires adding expected details to the remembered theme, or gist, of an event. Reconstruction is the way that brain-damaged, but not normal, individuals remember. Reconstruction may lead to errors in remembering, especially in memory for details. Reconstruction typically relies on the use of schemas for memory retrieval.
Reconstruction is the way that brain-damaged, but not normal, individuals remember.
Which of the following is LEAST effective as a study method? Continuing to study material past the point of initial learning Distributing studying over the entire preparation interval Repeated self-testing during the study periods Repeating information in short-term memory over and over again
Repeating information in short-term memory over and over again
Explain how schemas help to create false memories
Schemas help to create false memories because in using them, we tend to replace the actual details of what happened with what typically happens in the event that the schema depicts. As Bartlett found in his schema research, this is especially true for unusual details. This means that schemas tend to normalize our memories and lead us to remember what usually happens and not exactly what did happen.
Explain how source misattribution and the misinformation effect lead to false memories.
Source misattribution leads to false memories because we don't really know the source of a memory. The event may never have occurred, but we think that it did because we misattributed the source of the memory. The misinformation effect leads to false memories through the effect of misleading information being given at the time of retrieval. We incorporate this misleading information for an event into our memory and thus create a false memory for it.
Explain how state-dependent memory and mood-dependent memory stem from the encoding specificity principle.
State-dependent memory and mood-dependent memory are both instances of the encoding specificity principle operating because in each case, maximal similarity in study-test physiological states or moods leads to the best long-term memory.
spacing (distributed study) effect
Superior long-term memory for spaced study versus massed study (cramming).
mood congruence effect
Tendency to retrieve experiences and information that are congruent with a person's current mood. Demonstrates that memory is better for experiences that are congruent with a person's current mood
retrograde amnesia
The disruption of memory for the past, especially episodic information for events before, especially just before, surgery or trauma to the brain. - inability to remember events before especially just before surgery or trauma
misinformation effect
The distortion of a memory by exposure to misleading information.
tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) phenomenon
The failure to recall specific information from memory combined with partial recall and the feeling that recall is imminent
Priming
The implicit influence of an earlier presented stimulus on the response to a later stimulus. This influence is independent of conscious memory for the earlier stimulus.
anterograde amnesia
The inability to form new explicit long-term memories for events following surgery or trauma to the brain. Explicit memories formed before the surgery or trauma are left intact. - inability to form long term memories for events following brain surgery or trauma
long-term memory
The memory stage in which information is stored for a long period of time (perhaps permanently) and whose capacity is essentially unlimited. - allows storage of information for a long period of time - has essentially unlimited capacity
short-term memory
The memory stage with a small capacity (7 ± 2 chunks) and brief duration (< 30 seconds) that we are consciously aware of and in which we do our problem solving, reasoning, and decision making. - The memory stage in which the recognized information from sensory memory enters consciousness - Serves as a place to rehearse information - Involves concentrating on information, or it will be lost in 30 seconds
Which example BEST shows how "chunking" benefits memory performance? The names Terry, Bob, Bill, Jack, Fred, Sam, Anthony, Ed, Peter, and Michael are more likely to be remembered if they are alphabetized. A long list of words is better remembered if the words are organized categorically. The numbers 1, 4, 9, 2, 1, 7, 7, 6, 1, 9, 4, and 1 are more likely to be remembered if memorized as "1492," "1776," and "1941." A face is more likely to be later remembered if its individual features are studied carefully.
The numbers 1, 4, 9, 2, 1, 7, 7, 6, 1, 9, 4, and 1 are more likely to be remembered if memorized as "1492," "1776," and "1941."
Encoding-Speficity Principle
The principle that the environmental cues (both internal and external) present at the time information is encoded into long-term memory serve as the best retrieval cues for the information. - Proposes that cues present during encoding serve as the best cues for retrieval
Retrieval
The process of bringing information stored in long-term memory into short-term memory. Getting information out of the memory storage so it can be used
storage
The process of maintaining information in a memory stage., holding information in memory over a period of time
Encoding
The process of moving information from one memory stage to the next (from sensory memory into short-term memory or from short-term memory to long-term memory). Getting information into memory so that it will be available later
relearning
The savings method of measuring long-term memory retrieval in which the measure is the amount of time saved when learning information for the second time.
sensory memory
The set of sensory registers, one for each of our senses, that serve as holding places for incoming sensory information until it can be attended to, interpreted, and encoded into short-term memory. Used for incoming sensory information from the physical environment until we attend to it, interpret it, and it proceeds to the next stage of memory
self-reference effect
The superior long-term memory for information related to oneself at time of encoding into long-term memory. - Contends it is easier to remember information that you have related to yourself - Suggests such connections provide more retrieval cues and lend more meaning to the new information
primary effect
The superior recall of the early portion of a list relative to the middle of the list in a one-trial free recall task. recall from ltm
recency effect
The superior recall of the early portion of a list relative to the middle of the list in a one-trial free recall task. recall from stm
mirror tracing task
The task is to trace the outline of a star (or some other shape) with a metal stylus when the star and your hand can be seen only in the mirror. The tracing movements have to be made in the direction opposite from the way in which they appear in the mirror.
iconic memory
The visual sensory register that holds an exact copy of the incoming visual input but only for a brief period of time, less than 1 second very large capacity
Based on the levels-of-processing theory, maintenance rehearsal processes information at the _____ level.
acoustic
rehearsal
actively maintaining information in short term memory
Following an accident, Sydney is unable to remember the names of people she meets or even if she has met them. Even worse, Sydney is unable to form new memories about her activities following her accident. Her doctor immediately suspects that she is suffering from _____ amnesia.
anterograde
The inability to form new explicit long-term memories for events following surgery or trauma to the brain
anterograde amnesia
source misattribution
attributing a memory to the wrong source, resulting in a false memory - Occurs when we do not remember the true source of a memory and attribute the memory to the wrong source - Results in false memories, which are inaccurate memories that feel as real as accurate memories
Simply making flashcards and repeating key-term definitions leads to poorer retention than learning the definitions by understanding their meanings and relating them to other concepts. This can be BEST explained by: both levels-of-processing theory and elaborative rehearsal. elaborative rehearsal. self-reference effect .levels-of-processing theory.
both levels-of-processing theory and elaborative rehearsal.
what part of the brain is important for implicit memories
cerebellum
A meaningful unit in memory.
chunk
A theory of forgetting that proposes that forgetting is due to the unavailability of the retrieval cues necessary to locate the information in long-term memory.
cue dependent theory
A type of rehearsal in short-term memory in which incoming information is related to information from long-term memory to encode it into long-term memory.
elaborative rehearsal
Which of the following leads to the best long-term memory? maintenance rehearsal elaborative rehearsal physical processing acoustic processing
elaborative rehearsal
_____ memory is NOT a type of long-term memory (LTM)? Episodic Semantic Procedural Emotional
emotional
The results for the experiment in which word lists were studied either on land or underwater and then recalled either on land or underwater provide evidence for ____.
encoding specificity
The principle that states that the cues (both internal and external) present at the time information is encoded into long-term memory serve as the best retrieval cues for the information.
encoding specificity principle
Explicit memory for personal experiences.
episodic memory
With respect to long-term memory, _____ memory is a type of _____ memory.
episodic; explicit
The knowledge of what a person received as a gift for a twenty-first birthday is an example of _____, whereas the knowledge of the definition of a word is an example of _____.
episodic; semantic memory
A schoolteacher taught the students the names of all the continents on Earth. The students will store this information using:
explicit memory
Long-term memory for factual knowledge and personal experiences that requires a conscious effort to remember and that entails making declarations about the information remembered.
explicit memory
According to the three-stage model of memory, sensory information that enters sensory memory but is not attended to and recognized is:
forgotten
Retrieval/Reconstruction
guided by schemas
what part of the brain is important for explicit memories
hippocampus
In the case of Jean Piaget, source misattribution resulted in his believing that:
his nursemaid prevented an attempt to kidnap him when he was a young child.
Per the levels-of-processing theory, which of the following questions about the word "depressed" would best prepare you to correctly remember tomorrow that you had seen the word in this practice test question today? How well does the word describe you? Does the word consist of 10 letters? Is the word typed in capital letters? Does the word rhyme with obsessed?
how well does the word describe you
The visual sensory register that holds an exact copy of the incoming visual input but only for a very brief period of time—less than a second.
iconic memory
Procedural memories are ____ memories and thus are probably processed in the ____.
implicit;cerebellum
serial position effect
in memory the tendency to recall items at the beginning and the end of a list better than items in the middle
The primacy and recency effects in free recall demonstrate that we have the greatest difficulty recalling the words ____ of a list.
in the middle
Our inability as adults to remember events that occurred in our lives before about 3 years of age.
infantile/child amnesia
The duration of iconic memory is about _____ and its capacity is _____.
less than a second; fairly large
"Thinking deeply about material leads to better memory than simply repeating it to oneself." This statement expresses the key insight of:
level of processing theory
state-dependent memory
long-term memory retrieval is best when a person's physiological state at the time of encoding and retrieval of the information is the same. -Depends on the relationship of one's physiological state at the time of encoding and at the time of retrieval
Recall
measure of long-term memory retrieval that requires the reproduction of the information with essentially no retrieval cues. Directly retrieving items previously learned as on fill in the bank and essay tests
mnemonic
memory aid requires elaborative rehearsal
A memory task in which the participant is given a series of items one at a time and then has to recall the items in the order in which they were presented.
memory span task
_____ are techniques that are useful in improving memory performance, especially memory for item lists.
mnemonics
false memory
n inaccurate memory that feels as real as an accurate memory. The feeling of retrieving particulate information from memory even though that information and never stored in memory - Can also occur because of the misinformation effect, which occurs when a memory is distorted by subsequent exposure to misleading information
Episodic memory is exemplified by one's memory for: the name of Nevada's state capital. one's first kiss. how to ride a bicycle .the formula for the area of a triangle.
ones first kiss
Adrian is likely able to manipulate about 2 seconds of verbal material. In which working memory process does this occur?
phonological loop
A researcher has people try to remember a set of words. For each word that the researcher shows the participants, the researcher asks them if the word is written in lowercase or uppercase letters. Based on the levels-of-processing theory, the participants are attending to the _____ level.;
physical
Ana learns some conversational Portuguese in advance of a vacation in Brazil. However, the Spanish she used at home as a child sometimes impairs her retrieval of Portuguese words and phrases. Ana is experiencing _____ interference.
proactive
A measure of long-term memory retrieval that requires the reproduction of the information with essentially no retrieval cues.
recall
_____ is a measure of long-term memory retrieval that requires the reproduction of the information with essentially no retrieval cues:
recall
An essay test measures ____, and a multiple-choice test measures ____.
recall; recognition
A multiple-choice test is classified as a _____ test because retrieval cues _____ present.
recognition; are
. The _____ method of measuring long-term memory is sometimes called the savings method.
relearning
Dr. Persie presents participants with definitions of five words and records how long it takes the participants to learn the definitions. Dr. Persie does this every day for a week, with new words each day. Two weeks later, the participants are tested on how much less time it takes to learn the definitions of all the words. Dr. Persie's measure is:
relearning
Arif opens the "Documents" folder on his laptop's hard drive and then a folder labeled "POLI 105." He locates and opens his Political Science term paper. Arif's action is MOST similar to the human memory process of:
retrieval
The disruptive effect of new learning on the retrieval of old information.
retroactive interference
After learning the phone number for Five Star Pizza, Bob cannot remember the phone number he learned last week for the Donut Connection. After living in Los Angeles for three years, Jim is unable to remember his way around his hometown in which he had lived the previous 10 years prior to moving to Los Angeles. Bob is experiencing the effects of ____ interference, and Jim is experiencing the effects of ____ interference.
retroactive; retroactive
When Sara's history teacher tells her that "overlearning" is an important technique for succeeding on the upcoming exam, she means that:
sara should continue studying past the point of intial learning
According to Ebbinghaus, what is the benefit of earlier exposure to information one is trying to relearn? Earlier exposure makes relearning easier as measured by what ebbinghaus called
savings score
Frameworks of knowledge about people, objects, events, and actions that allow us to organize and interpret information about our world.
schemas
Mental frameworks to help us organize information about people, events, objects, and actions are called:
schemas
Based on the levels-of-processing theory, the _____ level produces the strongest memories.
semantic
Craik and Tulving's (1975) experiment on levels of processing showed that information processed _____ was better remembered than information processed _____.
semantically; physically
Which of the following types of memory has the shortest duration? sensory memory short-term memory semantic memory episodic memory
sensory memory
Which of the following types of memory holds sensory input until we can attend to and recognize it? short-term memory sensory memory semantic memory episodic memory
sensory memory
Piaget's false memory of a kidnapping attempt when he was a child was the result of ____.
source attribution
Superior long-term memory for spaced study versus massed study (cramming).
spacing (distributive study) effect
An experimental procedure in which, following the brief presentation of a matrix of unrelated consonants, the participant is given an auditory cue about which row of the matrix to recall.
sperlings partial report procedure
Which of the following theories of forgetting argues that the forgotten information was in long-term memory but is no longer available? encoding failure theory storage decay theory interference theory cue-dependent theory
storage decay theory
If one is mildly under the influence of alcohol while encoding new information, the state-dependent memory phenomenon suggests that:
subsequent recall is likely to be better if one is, again, mildly under the influence of alcohol.
Which of the following is not a mnemonic aid? method of loci peg-word system temporal integration procedure first-letter technique
temporal integration procedure
memory span
the average number of items an individual can remember across a series of memory span trials - Humans have a memory span of 7 ± 2 (5 to 9) chunks of information.
retroactive interference
the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information -Occurs when information you just learned makes it hard to retrieve old information
proactive interference
the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information - Occurs when information you already know makes it hard to retrieve newly learned information
The forgetting curve for long-term memory in Ebbinghaus's relearning studies with nonsense syllables indicates that ____.
the greatest amount of forgetting occurs rather quickly and then it levels off
Dr. Golub is testing memory for a list of words. He gives instructions to four different groups of participants. Based on the levels-of-processing theory, which group's instructions will MOST likely produce the BEST memories?
the group is asked to consider the meaning of the word
when does the hippocampus fully develop
the hippocampus fully develops about age 3 this is why we cannot remember ads adults events that occurred prior to the age
As adults, we are unable to remember events in our lives that occurred prior to when we were about 3 years of age. One proposed biological explanation for this fact is that:
the hippocampus, which is responsible for episodic memories, is not yet fully formed.
In the Loftus and Palmer experiment, participants were shown a film of a traffic accident and then later tested for their memory of it. The finding that memory differed based upon the specific words used in the test questions illustrated ____.
the miss information effect
phonological loop
the part of working memory that holds and processes verbal and auditory information
A researcher gave participants a list of words and asked half of the participants to rate on a scale of 1 to 7 how well the words applied to their lives. The other half of the participants were told to try to remember the words. The researcher found that those participants who rated how well the words applied to their lives had higher recall rates than the other participants. The researcher's results are BEST explained by:
the self reference effect
Which BEST represents an encoding process?
the self reference effect
If a detective questions a witness to a crime, Loftus and Palmer's (1974) experiment on the misinformation effect suggests that:
the words the detective uses may subtly influence the memory of the witness.
In Sperling's partial-report procedure, a _____ was used to cue retrieval of the letters.
tone
priming
unconsciously activating certain memory associations through exposure to related information
Infantile/child amnesia may be caused by:
underdeveloped hippocampus
Suppose one group of participants studies a list of words in an underground cave while another group studies the words above ground. Based on Godden and Baddeley's experiment (1975), we might expect that the group who studies underground:
would remember the words better underground, whereas the group who studies above ground would do better while retrieving the words above ground.