Chapter 6
A child trying to tie their own shoes after watching their mom do it would be an example of _________, but a child trying to tie their own shoes after watching their older sibling being rewarded for tying their own shoes would be an example of _________. 1.Modeling; vicarious learning 2.Vicarious learning; modeling 3.Classical conditioning; operant conditioning 4.Operant conditioning; classical conditioning
1.Modeling; vicarious learning
Learning is best described as... 1.Changes lasting a short time that come from experiences 2.Changes lasting a long time that come from experiences 3.Changes lasting a short time that come only from watching others 4.Changes lasting a long time that come only from watching others
2.Changes lasting a long time that come from experiences Explanation: Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience
Match the following examples with the type of learning that they are an example for. A.You are sprayed with water each time I say the word "learn", so you learn to flinch each time you hear the word "learn" even if you aren't sprayed B.You learn how to make a new dessert by watching your mom make it C.You are no longer startled by announcements made over the intercom at work D.You start coming to class more often because you know that you will sometimes get extra credit 1.Nonassociative learning 2.Classical conditioning 3.Operant conditioning 4.Observational learning
A) Classical condition B) Observational learning C) Nonassociative learning D) Operant conditioning
Pavlov placed meat powder in the mouths of dogs, and they began to salivate. The food acted as an unconditioned response. an unconditioned stimulus. a conditioned response. a conditioned stimulus.
An unconditioned stimulus Explanation: In this case, the food acted as the unconditioned stimulus to the dogs salivating every time.
What is the difference between Operant vs. Classical Conditioning?
Classical conditioning involves associating an involuntary response and a stimulus, while operant conditioning is about associating a voluntary behavior and a consequence •Operant conditioning: -Animal has control over one aspect (their behavior) -If I do Y, X will happen •Classical conditioning: -Animal has no control, only learns to predict -When Y happens, X will happen Ex.) While classical conditioning is training dogs to salivate to the sound of a metronome, operant conditioning is training them to sit by giving them a treat when they do.
Pearl used to really enjoy tuna salad. At a recent company party, Pearl became quite ill after eating tuna salad that had been sitting in the sun for too long. Now even the sight of a can of tuna in the grocery store makes her feel sick. In this example, the sick feeling Pearl experiences when she sees tuna in the grocery store is a conditioned response unconditioned response conditioned stimulus unconditioned stimulus
Conditioned Response Explanation: Before, when Pearl ate the tuna salad (unconditioned stimulus) she was able to enjoy it (unconditioned response). However, when Pearl became sick because of the company's tuna salad (netural/conditioned stimulus), now she does not want to eat it anymore (conditioned response)
John is fighting cancer and has to get chemotherapy at the Doctor's office every week. The chemotherapy makes him feel very nauseous. Now even the smell of the doctor's office before he actually gets the treatment causes John to feel nauseous. In this example, the smell of the office is the conditioned response unconditioned response conditioned stimulus unconditioned stimulus
Conditioned Stimulus Explanation: John got used to the smell of the office after every week (conditioned stimulus)which now he associates with getting chemotherapy (conditioned response)
You move to a new apartment that is closer to the street than your old apartment. After a few months you stop responding to the street noise. 1.Habituation 2. Sensitization
Habituation
When Laura began wearing glasses they felt uncomfortable on her face, but after a few days she didn't even notice she was wearing them. This is an example of habituation. sensitization. conditioning. stimulus generalization.
Habituation Explanation: Laura began to habituate wearing her new glasses by adjusting to the pain of her new glasses.
What is the difference between habituation and dishabituation?
Habituation is when we learn that a certain stimulus isn't relevant to us, and we begin to ignore it. Dishabituation is when a stimulus to which we've become habituated changes, and we start reacting to it again.
What is the difference between habituation and sensory adaption?
In habituation, the sensory receptors are still responding to stimulation but the lower centers of the brain are not sending the signals from the receptors to the cortex. Sensory adaptation differs because the receptor cells themselves become less responsive to an unchanging stimuli in the receptors no longer send signals to the brain
Reinforcement can be distinguished from punishment in that reinforcement _______ a target behavior, whereas punishment _______ a target behavior. removes; establishes increases; decreases discourages; encourages inhibits; enhances
Increases; decrease
What is habituation?
Is a psychological learning process wherein there is a decrease in response to a stimulus after being repeatedly exposed to it. It states that an animal or a human may learn to ignore a stimulus because of repeated exposure to it. Ex.) working in a daycare, When you put on a pair of shorts over the summer, the sensation of air on your legs feels normal. An individual purchases a new clock, but initially finds it difficult to concentrate while working in the room because of the clock's ticking.
What is an unconditioned stimulus? (US)
Is a stimulus that unconditionally, naturally, and automatically triggers a response. In other words, the response takes place without any prior learning. Ex.) Touching a hot iron, Putting food into your mouth and hitting a nail on your foot
What is an unconditioned response?(UR)
Is an unlearned response that occurs naturally in reaction to the unconditioned stimulus Ex.) Recoiling your hand, your mouth starts to water and grabbing your toe
What is a conditioned response? (CR)
Is the learned response to the previously neutral stimulus. ... The previously neutral stimulus will then evoke the response all on its own. At this point, the response becomes known as the conditioned response. Ex.) Many phobias begin after a person has had a negative experience with the fear object. Many children receive regular immunizations, and a child may cry as a result of these injections. A person who is bitten by a barking dog may experience feelings of fear and anxiety whenever he or she hears a barking noise.
What is observational learning?
Is the process of learning by watching the behaviors of others. The targeted behavior is watched, memorized, and then mimicked. Can involve: -Modeling -Vicarious learning Ex.) An infant learns to make and understand facial expressions. A child learns to chew.
What is nonassociative learning?
It is a change in a behavioral response to a novel stimulus after repeated or continuous exposure to that stimulus. Change in response = learning Uses: •Habituation •Sensitization Ex.) If you live close to an airport you may habituate to the sounds of planes coming and going, where guests visiting may ask how you can possibly bear to live there!
What is operant conditioning?
It is a method of learning that employs rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence (whether negative or positive) for that behavior. In other words "strength" of a behavior is modified through punishment/reward -Type of associative learning -An action's consequences determine future increase/decrease of that action Ex.) For example, when lab rats press a lever when a green light is on, they receive a food pellet as a reward A child may learn to clean his/her room regularly; because he/she will be rewarded with extra TV hours every time he/she cleans up. Students or children will follow rules strictly to avoid being nagged by the teachers or parents. To avoid nagging, the child might end up following the rules strictly.
When one individual imitates another, _______ has occurred. Modeling Imprinting Shaping Conditioning
Modeling
You have come home late again and missed curfew. Your father tells you that he is taking the keys to your car and you will not be able to drive for 2 months. In this case, taking the keys to your car is positive reinforcement negative reinforcement positive punishment negative punishment
Negative Punishment Explanation: The father is taking the keys to the child's car (removing stimulus) to stop them from coming home late (decrease behavior)
Putting on your coat when it is absolutely freezing outside is a behavior that is maintained by positive reinforcement negative reinforcement positive punishment negative punishment
Negative Reinforcement Explanation: Putting on your coat (Increase behavior) helps you be warm from the cold (Removes stimulus)
When you get into your car and start to drive, the car makes that annoying sound indicating that you have not put your seat belt on. To stop the car from making that sound, you buckle your seat belt. In this case, your behavior to buckle up is maintained by positive reinforcement negative reinforcement positive punishment negative punishment
Negative Reinforcement Explanation: To stop the annoying sound of the car (remove stimulus), you put on your seatbelt (increase behavior)
Escape conditioning is a form of _______ in which the subject learns to perform a response to remove an aversive stimulus. Negative reinforcement Negative punishment Positive reinforcement Positive punishment
Negative reinforcement
Andre was unable to make a paper airplane until he watched his cousin Miriam make a few. Now Andre can fold his own paper airplanes. This is an example of Second-order conditioning. Observational learning. Insight. Operant conditioning.
Observational Learning
Your teacher is angry with you for disrupting class. She decides to give you extra homework because of your misbehavior. In this case, the extra homework is a positive reinforcement negative reinforcement positive punishment negative punishment
Positive Punishment Explanation: The teacher is giving the student extra homework (adding a stimulus) to teach them stop disrupt the class (decrease behavior)
If your dog begs for food at the dinner table and you allow him to eat whatever falls on the floor, he will continue to beg because the food scraps on the floor have served as a positive reinforcement negative reinforcement positive punishment negative punishment
Positive Reinforcement Explanation: The food scraps serve as a reward (adding stimulus) for the dog's begging (increase behavior)
What is acquisition?
Refers to the first stages of learning when a response is established. It can be the period when the stimulus comes to evoke the conditioned response. At this point, the unconditioned stimulus becomes known as the conditioned stimulus. Ex.) For example, imagine that you are teaching a pigeon to peck a key whenever you ring a bell. Initially, you place some food on the key and sound a tone right before the pigeon pecks the key. After several trials, the pigeon begins to peck the key whenever he hears the tone, meaning he has acquired the behavior.
What is Reinforcement and Punishment?
Reinforcement means you are increasing a behavior, and punishment means you are decreasing a behavior. -Reinforcer-stimulus that occurs after response to increase that behavior Reinforcement can be positive or negative, and punishment can also be positive or negative. All reinforcers (positive or negative) increase the likelihood of a behavioral response. Ex.) Spanking a child when he throws a tantrum. Something is added to the mix (spanking as reinforcement) to discourage bad behavior (throwing a tantrum as a behavior).
You're sitting in a boring lecture when you notice that the speaker says "okay" after almost every sentence and during pauses. Each time he says "okay" you become more and more annoyed. 1.Habituation 2. Sensitization
Sensitization
Luther is deathly afraid of spiders. Yesterday he saw a scorpion and became very fearful. This is probably due non-associative learning. spontaneous recovery. stimulus generalization. sensitization.
Stimulus Generalization Explanation: Luther associates with any a
What is discrimination?
The ability to differentiate between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have not been paired with an unconditioned stimulus. It involves identifying differences between similar stimuli if some don't predict reward -Only see CR with the CS Ex.) a bell tone was the conditioned stimulus, discrimination would involve being able to tell the difference between the bell sound and other similar sounds. When you tell a ribald tale to friends at a party, but refrain from doing so at a church gathering.
•Unconditioned Stimulus (US) •Unconditioned Response (UR) •Neutral Stimulus •Conditioned Stimulus (CS) •Conditioned response (CR) Computer reboot (after learning) Reaching for the mint Being offered a mint Computer reboot Reaching for the mint (after learning)
US: Being offered a mint UR: Reaching for the mint Neutral: Computer reboot CS: Computer reboot (after learning) CR: Reaching for the mint (after learning)
Jordan was dancing with her boyfriend when the band started playing "Marry Me" by Train and her boyfriend gave her a kiss that Jordan found very enjoyable. Now every time Jordan hears "Marry Me" on the radio she experiences a rush of excitement. In this example, the kiss is the a. conditioned response b. unconditioned response c. conditioned stimulus d. unconditioned stimulus
Unconditioned Stimulus Explanation: The memory of the kiss (unconditioned stimulus) makes Jordan react excited every time she hears the song (conditioned response)
While walking in the park one day, you see someone fall off their bike. Would your mirror neurons be active? 1.Yes 2. No
Yes
What is classical conditioning?
a learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired: a response which is at first elicited by the second stimulus is eventually elicited by the first stimulus alone. Ex.) You receive a good report card, you already well up with happy emotions, even before you bring it home to show your parents. Whenever you come home wearing a baseball cap, you take your child to the park to play. So, whenever your child sees you come home with a baseball cap, he is excited because he has associated your baseball cap with a trip to the park.
Your uncle is about to undergo chemotherapy and is worried about the nausea that often accompanies such treatment. You should advise him to eat as little as possible before or after starting treatments. only his very favorite foods. foods he dislikes right as he begins treatments foods he dislikes right after he begins to feel sick.
foods he dislikes right as he begins treatments
What is a neutral stimulus?
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning A good example of a neutral stimulus is a sound or a song. When it is initially presented, the neutral stimulus has no effect on behavior. As the song is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus, it will begin to cause the same response as the UCS.
What is a conditioned stimulus? (CS)
is a previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming associated with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned response. For example, the smell of food is an unconditioned stimulus, a feeling of hunger in response to the smell is an unconditioned response, and the sound of a whistle when you smell the food is the conditioned stimulus. The conditioned response would be feeling hungry when you heard the sound of the whistle.
What is Thorndike's puzzle box?
is the laboratory device that E. L. Thorndike invented in order to study instrumental or operant conditioning in cats. How it works: •Food outside box •Cat "accidently" pushes lever •Becomes quicker each time
What is sensitization?
is the strengthening of a neurological response to a stimulus due to the response to a secondary stimulus. Can be: Threatening or painful stimuli Ex.) Sibling hitting you in the car and they eventually they touch you lightly and you freak out. If a loud sound is suddenly heard, an individual may startle at that sound. School children are frequently sensitized to the sound of a ringing bell when they are waiting for the end of the school day.
What are mirror neurons?
neurons that are activated both when we perform an action and when we observe someone else perform the same action. -They let us "simulate" not just other people's actions, but the intentions and emotions behind those actions. •Activate when... -We watch someone do something -When we do it ourselves •Ex: feeling pain •Ex: movements with goals Ex.) When you see someone smile, for example, your mirror neurons for smiling fire up, too, creating a sensation in your own mind of the feeling associated with smiling.
What is extinction?
the gradual weakening of a conditioned response that results in the behavior decreasing or disappearing. In other words, CR is weakened when the CS is repeated without the US Ex.) For example, imagine that you taught your dog to shake hands. Over time, the trick became less interesting. Thus, the response becomes extinct and your dog no longer displays the behavior.
What is Biological preparedness?
the idea that people and animals are inherently inclined to form associations between certain stimuli and responses Ex.) Snakes, spiders, and dangerous heights are all things that people tend to form fear associations with these threatening options. Because of that fear, people tend to avoid those possible dangers, making it more likely that they will survive
What is associative learning?
the process by which someone learns an association between two stimuli or a response and a stimulus. -Links 2 events There are 2 types: Classical conditioning & Operant conditioning Ex.) Ivan Pavlov's use of dogs to demonstrate that a stimulus, such as the ringing of a bell, leads to a reward, or food. If someone puts their hand on a hot stove and hurts themselves, they may learn to associate hot stoves with pain, and have therefore been conditioned not to put their hands on them.
What is vicarious learning?
the process of learning by observing the consequences of another's actions and adjusting behavior accordingly. -Child watches adult engage in aggressive behavior •Adults is rewarded, punished or neither •More violence when rewarded Ex.) After witnessing an older sibling being punished for taking a cookie without asking, the younger child does not take cookies without permission. A salesperson who is relatively new to the job can learn how to offer better services and make more sales. It can be done by listening to the sales experts make sales and observing how they behave when making sales. It is also essential to pick the best traits to combine with their strengths to their business's advantage.
What is spontaneous recovery?
the reappearance of a learned response after extinction has occurred. In other words, CR reemerges after the presentation of the CS. •It must be reinforced to continue Ex.) A child is taught to go to sleep when the light is turned off. However, for many months the child no longer falls asleep when the light is turned off. Then, the child begins to fall asleep when the light is turned off again. Pepperoni makes a child sick every time they eat it. That child grows up and moves past their food allergy. However, at a pizza restaurant, the smell of pepperoni suddenly make that person feel nauseous
What is generalization?
the tendency to respond in the same way to different but similar stimuli. In other words, stimulus similar to the CS produces the CR. Ex.) John Watson trained an infant to fear white rats through classical conditioning, but Little Albert developed a generalized fear of all things white and furry. A dog conditioned to salivate to a tone of a particular pitch and loudness will also salivate with considerable regularity in response to tones of higher and lower pitch.
What is Negative Punishment and Reinforcement?
•"Negative Reinforcement" •Remove stimulus to increase behavior •Ex) A mom stops nagging her son when he does the dishes •"Negative Punishment" •Remove stimulus to decrease behavior •Ex) Taking away a teenager's phone when they break curfew
What is Positive Punishment and Reinforcement?
•"Positive Reinforcement" •Add a stimulus to increase behavior •Ex) Giving a child ice cream for doing their homework •"Positive Punishment" •Add a stimulus to decrease behavior •Ex) Spraying your cat for peeing on the carpet
Some things to note about Operant Conditioning
•More consistency = more change in behavior -Can be consistent in intervals (lengths of time) or in ratio (number of "trials") •Punishment is not always the right choice -Ex) Spanking (depends on how the child acts) •Biological constraints: hard to modify evolutionarily adaptive behaviors -Ex) training pigeons to avoid shocks through pecks vs. flaps
What is Positive and Negative?
•Positive - The addition of new stimuli to influence behavior •Negative - The removal of stimuli to influence behavior In positive punishment, you add an undesirable stimulus to decrease a behavior. ... In negative punishment, you remove a pleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior. Ex.) when a child misbehaves, a parent can take away a favorite toy. In this case, a stimulus (the toy) is removed in order to decrease the behavior.
How does classical conditioning work?
•Start with a "normal" stimulus Ex) food makes dogs drool, blowing a horn or make cookies Then pair a neutral stimulus with the "normal" stimulus until the neutral stimulus produces same result -Ex) dogs drooling when they hear a bell, hearing a horn signals the train coming or kids coming when they smell cookies.
Learning is the acquisition of knowledge, skill, attitudes, or understanding as a result of Sensory adaptation. Dishabituation Intelligence Experience.
Experience
What is modeling (observational learning)?
a process where a person learns through observation and imitation of the behavior of other individuals and consequences of that behavior -Works best when models are: •Attractive •High status •Somewhat similar to ourselves Ex.) the therapist might model good telephone manners for a client who wants a job in a field that requires frequent telephone contact with customers.
What is learning?
a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience -Results from experience There are 3 types: -Nonassociative -Associative -Observational Ex.) a student understanding and remembering what they've been taught, an animal eats something that hurts its stomach, it learns not to eat that again.
What is dishabituation?
(or dehabituation) is a form of recovered or restored behavioral response wherein the reaction towards a known stimulus is enhanced, as opposed to habituation. Ex) a kid gets hurt, response of a receptionist in a scenario where a delivery truck arrives at 9:00AM in the morning. You play peek-a-boo with a baby by covering your face with a blanket.
A.Spanking a kid for misbehaving B.Reading an extra bedtime story if your kid is in bed on time C.Taking away treats if your dog poops in the house D.You give your kid fewer vegetables with dinner if they finish their homework on time. 1.Negative reinforcement 2.Positive reinforcement 3.Positive punishment 4.Negative punishme
A) 3 B) 2 C) 4 D) 1
What is Conditioned Taste Aversion?
Development of a nausea or aversive response to a particular taste because that taste was followed by a nausea reaction such as sickness, occurring after only one association. Ex.) For example, if you ate sushi for lunch and then became ill, you might avoid eating sushi in the future, even if it had no relationship to your illness.
Your 2-year-old niece got excited when she saw money, even if it was Monopoly money, because she knew it could be used to buy candy. However, recently she stopped getting excited at the sight of Monopoly money, but still is excited when she sees real money. This is an example of... Generalization Discrimination Acquisition Extinction
Discrimation
You used to feed your cat canned food, requiring the use of a can opener, and your cat would go to the food bowl when it heard the can opener. After switching to dry food and only using the can opener for human food for a few weeks, the cat no longer reacts to the can opener. This is an example of.... Generalization Acquisition Extinction Discrimination
Extinction
