Chapter 6- Attention and Memory
memory drugs
-All the drugs work through neurotransmitters. use of memory enhancing drugs do not work over the long run. -Only modest, short-term improvement -No medical breakthroughs -Many drugs cause memory side effects.
implicit vs explicit memory
-Implicit memory (procedural memory) §Retrieval of information without conscious or intentional recollection §An example is a language task such as stem completion. §Smaller age differences than explicit memory -Explicit memory (declarative) §Intentional and conscious remembering of information that is learned at a specific point in time §Performance on explicit memory tasks declines with age. older people are better at implicit memory rather than explicit memory tasks
autobiographical memory
-Involves remembering information and events from our own life §It is a form of episodic memory. -more memories are present from young adulthood than later in life. verification of autobiographical memories is difficult. -Flashbulb memories §Vivid memories of very personal or emotional events, but these are often inaccurate -Events experienced between 10 and 30 years of age are reported more often than those occurring in middle adulthood.
the role of memory self-efficacy
-Memory Self-efficacy: the belief that one will be able to perform a specific task §One may know a good deal about how memory works, but still believe they possess low ability to perform a specific memory task. §Memory successes tend to bolster self-efficacy, and failures reduce one's belief of memory competence.
prospective memory
-Remembering to perform a planned action in the future -Differences between event-based and time-based future events §Time-based remembering is more age related.
memory and nutrition
-Several components in healthy diets are essential for well-functioning memory. §Flavonoids may reverse age-related deficits in spatial memory. §Iron has also been associated with better verbal memory. §Vitamin B including 6 and 9 (folic acid) -Serious decrements in memory may be caused by poor diet.
long term memory
-The ability to remember extensive amounts of information from a few seconds, hours, or decades. Semantic Memory: §Learning and remembering the meaning of words and concepts that are not tied to specific occurrences of events in time Episodic Memory: §Conscious recollection of information from a specific event or point in time §Recall (remembering without hints) versus recognition (choosing from items) -age-related decrements are found on recall tests but not on recognition tests. older adults tend to use memory strategies spontaneously as often as or well as younger adults
working memory
-The active processes and structures involved in holding information in minding and simultaneously using that info, sometimes in conjunction with incoming Information, to solve a problem, make a decision, or learn. info is kept active through rehearsal -Using that information to: §Solve a problem §Make a decision §Learn new information -Rehearsal: The process by which information is held in working memory -Working memory capacity declines with age and seems to be related to declines in: § storage capacity § ability to allocate capacity to more than one task § slower rates of information processing -Age-related declines are not universal, however they are greater: §for spatial working memory than for verbal working memory, although there are declines in both. §Greater working knowledge counterbalances declines in working memory in some situations. On more complex tasks relative to simplerones
training memory skills
-Training people how to remember information better through the use of memory strategies can be aimed at any adult. §Pay attention §Make connections from existing knowledge to new material §Provide the basis for future retrieval cues -Place memory strategies in the context of healthy life styles §E-I-E-I-O strategy combines explicit memory and implicit memory with external and internal memory aids. §Internal memory aids rely on mental processes such as imagery. -older adults can learn new internal memory strategies but like all adults, usually abandon them over time. §External memory aids rely on environmental resources. -such as lists and calendars, are common but internal implicit strategies are effective even with people who have Alzheimer's disease; oSmartphone apps aim at relieving the memory burden. o Social media link names and faces
information-processing model
-uses a computer metaphor to explain how people process stimuli -the information-processing model is based on 3 assumptions: 1. people are active participants in the process 2. both quantitative and qualitative aspects of performance can be examined 3. information is processed through a series of hypothetical stages or processes. sensory memory: the first level of processing incoming info from the environment. a brief and almost identical representation of the stimuli that exists in the observable environment. a large capacity but informative only lasts there for a short time. attention: -functional perspective: attention is composed of separate dimensions serving different functions -attentional control is linked to the parieto-frontal lobes.
factors that preserve memory: cognitive reserve
1. Exercise §Physical exercise improves cognitive performance. 2. Multilingualism and Cognitive Functioning §Research suggests that older adults who speak four or more languages had the best cognitive state. 3. Semantic Memory in Service of Episodic Memory §Older adults are better in episodic memory when they can use previously learned semantic information to support episodic knowledge. 4. Negative Stereotypes and Memory Performance §Older adults do worse on memory tasks if they believe that age hampers memory ability.
automatic and effortful processing
1. automatic processing: places minimal demands on attentional capacity -gets information into the system largely without us being aware of it -performance on tasks that depend on automatic processes do not demonstrate significant age differences -no age differences . 2. effortful processing: requires all of the available attentional capacity -when there is effort and deliberate processing involved to remember the info, age differences emerge. -pronounced age differences
age differences in encoding versus retrieval
Encoding: -age related decrements may be due to decrements in rehearsal within working memory and being slower at making connections with incoming info. -older adults do not spontaneously organize incoming Information as well as younger adults, but they can use organizational helps when told to do so. the benefits of this approach are short-lived. -older adults tend not to use optimal encoding strategies, this does not account for poor memory performance. oThe spontaneous use of strategies during the learning of new information declines with age. oChanges in the left lateral prefrontal cortex underlies the encoding declines. Retrieval: -age related decline in retrieval is related to poorer encoding as well as failure to use retrieval strategies. §Older adults tend to spontaneously use fewer retrieval strategies than younger adults. §Age-related compensatory brain activity for retrieval to work around the normal changes occurring in information processing -older adults have more tip of the tongue experiences than younger adults.
what is the connection between memory and physical and mental health?
dementia (such as Alzheimer's) and severe depression both involve memory impairment. other diseases and health conditions can also cause memory difficulties. -temporary global amnesia, more common in middle age than in younger or older adulthood, may be related to blood flow in the brain. -traumatic brain injury (TBI) can have serious consequences, as seen in the long-term potential damage from repeated concussions.
speed of processing
how quickly and efficiently the early steps in information processing are completed. older adults are slower. -evidence including neuroimaging studies indicates age-related slowing depends on what adults are being asked to do (e.g choosing which response to make) -the amount of beta-amyloid protein in the central nervous system I related to the degree of processing speed slows.
normal versus abnormal aging
normal vs abnormal memory aging: -Distinguish by asking if changes disrupt a person's ability to function in everyday life. brain imaging techniques allow localization of problems with more precision §Such as repeatedly forgetting to turn off the stove §Forgets the way home -Telling the difference is often difficult. -some diseases are marked b severe memory impairments. however, in many cases, telling the difference between normal changes and those associated with disease or other abnormal events is difficult. -difficult areas of the brain control different aspects of memory. Memory and Physical and Mental Health: -Damage to the brain can cause memory issues. -Temporary global amnesia (TGA): Negative effects on cognitive functioning following concussion
processing resources
the amount of attention one has to apply to a particular situation -some researchers claim older adults have fewer processing resources than younger adults. however, this conclusion is suspect because processing resources is ill defined two possible reasons for decline in processing with age: -inhibitory loss: older adults may have difficulty inhibiting/filtering out the processing of irrelevant info. this may have a beneficial effect under certain circumstances. --emotionally supportive messages reduce distracting thoughts and improve performance on everyday tasks -attentional changes: but older adults are not worse than younger adults at dividing attention, in general. --older adults are just as able to multitask but perform each task a bit more slowly.
age differences in episodic memory
§Older adults perform worse than younger adults on recall tests. o Omit more information oInclude more intrusions oRepeat more previously recalled items §Less Difference with Recognition Tests oOlder adults are more likely to say they recognize items that were never presented. oChange in brain activity in the prefrontal cortex §Autobiographical memory is more resistant to declining.
age differences in semantic memory
§Semantic converts learning and remembering the meaning of words and concepts not tied to specific occurrences of events in time. semantic memory is relatively spared in normal aging. §Changes can happen if it becomes hard to access and retrieve if the knowledge is not used and if adults are experiencing momentary retrieval failure (tip-of-the-tongue).
age differences in meta memory/ memory monitoring
•Age Differences in Metamemory -usually assessed with questionnaires. -Older adults: §seem to know less about how memory works than younger adults about the workings of memory and its capacity , view memory as less stable, believe their memory will decline with age, and few they have little control over these changes. memory self-efficacy is an important predictor of performance in several settings. §view memory as less stable §expect that memory will deteriorate perceive they have less control over memory •Age Differences in Memory Monitoring -The ability to monitor one's memory does not appear to decline with age. -memory monitoring may provide a basis for compensating for actual performance declines.
aspects of memory self-evaluations
•Metamemory: knowledge about how memory works and what we believe is true about it -Memory Monitoring: awareness of what we are doing with our memory right now
source memory and false memory
•Source Memory -The ability to remember the source of a familiar event and the ability to determine if an event was imagined or actually experience. declines with age. §Older adults are less accurate at many source-memory tasks. §Older adults show overactivation of the prefrontal cortex when confronted with source memory tasks. •False Memory -When one remembers items or events that did not occur §Older adults tend to be more susceptible to false memory issues than younger adults.