Chapter 6,7,8 Psychology 200

Prejudice

a view of other people, usually negative, that is based on their membership in a specific group

Chapter 7

Chapter 7

Popular children

Children who are like by many classmates

Stereotype threat An evoked fear of being judged in accordance with a negative stereotype about a group to which you belong

stereotype threats

negative reinforcement trap

unwittingly reinforcing a behavior you want to discourage

puberty

collection of physical changes that marks the onset of adolescence, including a growth spurt and the growth of breasts or testes

Divergent Thinking

thinking in novel and unusual directions

The Six Language Arts Listening, Talking, Reading, writing, viewing, visually respresenting Literature Focus Unit teachers organize around award-winning trade books that are appropriate for students' interest level but too challenging for students to read independently Literature Circles students read and respond to high-quality trade books in small groups Include: Reading, Responding, Creating projects, and Sharing Writing Workshop classroom becomes a community of writers who write and share their writing components are: writing, sharing, teaching minilessons Reading Workshop students choose books that interest them and are appropriate for their reading level and read them independently components are: reading and responding, sharing, and teaching minilessons Thematic Units integrate language arts with social studies, science, and other curricular areas Strategy problem-solving mechanisms that involve complex thinking processes Skills used unconsciously, automatic behaviors Metacognition knowledge children aquire about their own cognitive processes Zone of Proximal Development Vygotsky - is the range of tasks that the child can perform with guidance from others but cannot yet perform independently Scaffolding support mechanisms that teachers', parents and others provide to help children successfully perform a task Phonological System sound system of English Syntax System grammar system regulates how words are combined into sentences and how affixes are added to words Semantic System meaning system Pragmatic System system that deals with the social and cultural aspects of language use Differentiate Instruction students have multiple options for taking information, making sense of ideas, and expressing what they learn. Especially important for struggling learners Assessment diagnostic and ongoing - used to plan instruction and monitor progress Evaluation used to judge students' learning; often involves testing, teacher-made tests, unit tests, or end-of-the-year standardized achievement tests Listening Capacity Level level at which students are likely to understand grade-level Informal Reading Inventory (IRI) individually administered and is comprised of graded word lists and story passages KWL Charts a large chart into three columns - K - What we Know W - What we wonder and L - What we learned Word Identification skills students learn that help them figure our the pronunciation of a word in print and large bank of words that student recognize instantly and automatically. Word Recognition connecting a printed word's pronunciation with its meaningf Fluency accuracy and ease of decoding, age-of-grade-level-appropriate reading speed or rate, appropriate use of volume, pitch, juncture, and stress and appropriate "chunking" of text phrases Prosody ability to read sentences with appropriate phrasing and intonation Comprehension use past experiences and text to construct a meaning that useful for a specific purpose. Reading Process prereading, reading, responding, exploring, applying Prereading ist stage of reading process: begins before readers open a book: adtivate prior knowledge, set a purpose for reading, and preview the selection before reading Reading 2nd stage of reading process: read the book by: independent readin, shared reading, guided reading, and reading aloud Responding 3rd stage of reading process: students write in reading logs and participate in grand conversations Exploring 4th stage of reading process: students go back into the text to analyze. teachers teach minilessons on reading strategies using excerpts from book Applying Last stage of reading process: readers move beyond comprehension and use what they learned and create projects Concept book topic is portrayed using a combination of text and illustrations Photo Essay a photo display with minimal accompanying text alphabet books facts are presented in alphabetical order Directions the steps in making or doing something are described Question and Answer books a questions and answer format to share information Biographies an account of a person's life written by someone else Autobiographies an account of a person's life written by that person Journals collection of documents reference books comprehensive collection of articles on a topic Blended story book that combines narrative and expository elements Rhymed verse poems with a rhyme scheme so that some lines end with the same sound Free verse poems that don't rhyme Haiku Japanese three-line nature poems containing 17 syllables Limerick A five-line, rhymed verce form Concrete poems arranged on the page to create a picture or image Acrostic Lines in a poem arranged so the first letter of each spells a word when read vertically Personal Journals students write about events in their own lives and about other topics of special interest Dialogue Journals written to be shared with the teacher or classmate - and responds to entry Reading logs respond after stories, powms, and informational books Double-entry Journals divide each page of journal into two columns and write different types of information in each column Writing Process prewriting, drafting, revising, editing, publishing Prewriting 1st stage of writing process: gather and organize ideas for writing Drafting 2nd stage of writing process: get ideas down on paper, tenative and write a rough draft Revising 3rd stage of writing process: refine the ideas and clarify meaning in rough drafts and share with classmates and teacher to get feedback Editing 4th stage of writing process: students proofread their rough drafts, checking for misspelled correctly capitalized words, and grammar errors Publishing 5th stage of writing process: prepare final copy and share them with classmates or another appropriate audience Six Traits of writing Ideas, Organization, Voice, Word Choice, Sentence fluency, and conventions Alliteration repeating the initial sound in consecutive words or words in close proximity: Sally sells sea-shells down by the sea-shore Assonance repeating the vowel in consecutive words: Dad slammed the bat Onomatopoeia adding words that sould like their meaning: varoom Preposition a word or group of words used to show position, direction, or how two words or ideas are related to one another: at, with, to between Conjunction a word used to connect words and groups of words: and, but, or, because Interjection a word or phrase used to express strong emotion, set off by commas or exclamation point: Wow! Cool, dude! Orthography patterns linking letters or graphemes to sounds in spoken language to produce conventional word spellings Morphology study of word structure Etymology study of how word meanings and language meanings change over time in popular culture Phonics how alphabet spellings relate to speech sounds in systematic and predictable ways Graphophonemic letter-sound relationships Segment ability to pull apart spoken words and attend to the individual phonemes Alphabetic Principle concept that letters or letter combinations represent speech sounds in whole, spoken words Consonant Digraph two consonants that produce only one speech sound (th, sh) Consonant Blend two or more cononants coming together in which the speech sounds of all the consonants may be heard Vowel Digraph two vowels together in a word that produce only one speech sound (ee, oo, ie, ai) Schwa vowel letters that produce the /uh/ sound Diphthong two vowels together in a word that produce a single, slided sounds oi in oil oy in boy Onset is the part of the syllable that comes before the vowel Rime the part of the syllable that comes after the vowel Structural analysis strategy readers use to decode unfamiliar words in print Morphemes basic meaning units Emergent student has little or no skill in the task assessed and requires instruction Cueing Systems Semantic - make sense, Structure - sound right, and Visual cues - look right Automaticity translating letters to sounds to words effortlessly and accurately Reliability evidence demonstrates whether student performance will be measured in a stable and cinsistent manner Validity indicate the degree to which tests measure what their developers claim they measure

foundations of reading and writing

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Ego Resilience

A person's ability to respond adaptively and resourcefully to new situation

secondary sex characteristics

physical signs of maturity that are not directly linked to reproductive organs

Terms Definitions Attention The ability to focus for a time on just selected sensory information or activity. Memory The ability to store and recall information learned and events experienced in the past. Reasoning The ability to figure things out-what to do, the solution to a problem, why something has happened. Perception The ability to take in information from the senses. Imagination The ability to think of things in ways different from how they exist in reality. Creativity The ability to make something concrete from what one has imagined. Curiosity The inner need to question things that lead to learning more about them. Trial-and-Error Learning that takes place when a child tries several solutions before finding one that works. Nueroscience The modern study of the brain. Intelligence The ability to interpret and understand everyday situations and to use prior experiences when faced with new situations or problems. Also defined as the capacity to learn, which is shaped by heredity and environemnt. Incidental Learning Unplanned learning, as when a child happens to push a button on a musical toy and discovers that this action causes music to play. Creativity A mental ability that involves using the imagination to produce original ideas. Imitation Learning Learning by watching and copying others. Directed Learning Learning that results from being taught formally or informally. Reading Readiness Learning skills necessary for reading, including letter recognition and the understanding that letters of the alphabet combine to form words on a page. Math Readiness The level of knowledge of basic math concepts, such as number recognition, needed for learning math. Speech-Language Pathologist A specialist trained to detect and correct speech, language, or voice problems. Articulation The ability to use clear, distinct speech. Stuttering Serious speech difficulty that occurs when a person speaks with sporadic repetition or prolonged sounds.

-brain growth

Rehearsal First letter Rehearsal Method of Loci Rehearsal Link Method Rehearsal Story Method Rehearsal Rhymes & Tunes Elaboration Associate old w/new Elaboration Visualize it Elaboration Paraphrase & Summarize Elaboration Create analogies Elaboration Apply it Elaboration Teach it to someone else Organization Divide it up Organization Find the hierarchy Organization Classify & Organize Organization Diagram & Outline

-information processing strategies

The cognitive processing, encoding and storing of information that we learn and need to retrieve later Memory Encoding, Storing and, Access andR retrieval. Memory's basic tasks sensory, working, and long term Stages of memory memory lasting only 1/4 to a few seconds sensory memory memory lasting a few seconds to twenty seconds working memory permanent memory long term memory stores memories for how things are done procedural memory stores episodic and semantic memory declarative memory a technique used for improving memory Mnemonics A technique where organizing pieces of information into smaller number of meaningful units. Chunking a cognitive process where the information from our senses, emotions and memory is used by the brain to create and manipulate mental representations Thinking content and expectations about what we are likely to find when encountering familiar people, situations, images and ideas, clustered with related concepts. schema formulas used to solve problems with a guarantee of a correct outcome if applied correctly. algorithms short cuts or workarounds used to solve problems but does not guarantee a correct solution. heuristic mental capacity to acquire knowledge, reason, and solve problems effectively intelligence Multiple intelligence researcher Howard Gardner Triarchic theory of intelligence Robert Sternberg Developers of intelligence testing Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon Using unnecessary restrictions, not thinking "outside the box". self imposed limitations tendency to respond to a new problem in the manner used for previous problems mental set

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Rejected Children

As applied to children's popularity, children who are disliked by many classmates

What are common characteristics of bullies and victims?

Bullies - physically stronger, strong need for power, family environment o Bullies - high in aggression, low in victimization, few psychological problems, perceived as "cool" by classmates o Bully-Victims - high in aggression, high in victimization, depression/loneliness, conduct problems • Victims - low self-esteem, anxious/cautious/withdrawn, physically weaker, does not retaliate when attacked, depression/social anxiety/loneliness, lowest social status

Chapter 8

Chapter 8

. How does exposure to television affect children's development

End up with more stereotyped views of males and females

Stereotype threat

Stereotype Threat and Self-Affirmation Stereotype threat Self-fulfilling prophecy Anxiety and reduced test performance may result from knowledge about stereotypes concerning one's ability Self-affirmation: reminding the self of important values and why these are important (e.g., doing well in school) shown to reduce stereotype threat and to improve performance in African Americans VIDEO: Stereotype Threat Interpreting Test Scores Test scores show a child's adaptation to a particular cultural context; this may not be the child's dominant culture Most IQ tests predict success in schools with middle-class values Children scoring poorly may lack the skills required to succeed in that environment Intervention can improve those skills and, therefore, test scores Individuals differ in IQ more than ethnic groups do In all groups, we find both very low and high IQ scores 6.3 Special Children, Special Needs:Learning Objectives What are the characteristics of gifted and creative children? What are different forms of learning disability? What are the distinguishing features of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder?

Convergent Thinking

Using information to arrive at one standard and correct answer

ego resilience

a person's ability to respond adaptively and resourcefully to new situations

co-rumination

conversations about one's personal problems, common among adolescent girls

early maturation effects more risks, popular late maturation effects less popular, picked on

early and late maturation

norexia nervosa eating disorder characterized by self-starvation bulimia nervosa eating disorder characterized by eating large quantities of food, followed by purging with vomiting, fasting, exercising or laxative abuse binge eating disorder frequent binging without subsequent fasting, exercising or vomiting

eating disorders

Standard achievement test Designed to determine how well students are achieving a common set of broadly based goals. Normex group A population of students hose geographic characteristics approximate the characteristics of the local students. Raw score The number of points received o a test when a test has been scored according to the directions. Derived scores Scores computed from raw scores for the purpose of making meaningful interpretations of student performance. Percentile Grade equivalent Standard scores The moat common types of derived scores used in school achievement testing are... Standard scores Describes test performance in terms of how far a raw score is above or below the average. Mean Median Mode Measures of Central Tendency Range Standard Deviation Measures of variability Average Mean = Standard deviation The degree to which the data is spread out. Indicates the # of deviations a raw score falls above or below the mean. Percentile score Indicates a student relative position in a group interim of the percentage of group members at or belowthe student's raw score. Normal curve A systemmetrical bell-shaped curve based on a percise mathematical equation. Percentile bands A range of percentile scores. I used to estimate the amount of error in an individual test score Percentile score One of the easiest scores to understand and interpret. At the exact center of a normal distribution Where does the mean fall? Percentile bands A range of percentile ranks is called... By the reliability of the test How is the width of the percentile band determined? Narrow The band of a highly reliable test is... Wide The band of a low reliable test is.. The amount of error in an individual test score. What does the width of the band estimate? Z-scores Indicates, in standard deviation units, how far a given raw score is a above or below the mean. T-scores Have a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10. Normal cue e equivalent a score Has a mean of 50, but a standard deviation of 21.06. Ability scores Mea of 100 and a standard deviation of 16 Stanine A standard score that literally means Standard Nine, stanines have a mean of five and a standard deviation of approximately two. Stanines 2 through 8 are exactly 1/2 standard deviations and stanines one and nine or open ended. Divide the raw score into nine parts.

interpreting test scores

common criticism of Kohlberg's theory of moral development Kohlberg neglected to consider the relationship between moral reasoning and moral behavio

moral reasoning, Kohlberg, Gilligan

Chapter Eight Rites of Passage: Physical and Cognitive Development in Adolescence 8.1 Pubertal Changes:Learning Objectives What physical changes occur in adolescence that mark the transition to a mature young adult? What factors cause the physical changes associated with puberty? How do physical changes affect adolescents' psychological development? Signs of Physical Maturation Puberty consists of two changes that mark the change from childhood to young adulthood Dramatic increases in height, weight, and changes in body's fat and muscle content Changes in the reproductive organs that mark sexual maturity, as well as secondary sexual characteristics (body and facial hair, growth of breasts) Physical Growth During the adolescent growth spurt, females gain as much as 15 pounds a year and boys 17 pounds Girls begin the growth spurt about 2 years before boys Girls start the growth spurt at about age 11, peak at 12, and reach mature stature at 15 Boys begin at about 13, peak at 14, and reach mature stature at about 17 Head, hands, and feet grow first with trunk and shoulders last Physical Growth (cont'd) Bones become denser and longer Muscle fibers become thicker and denser; heart and lung capacity increase More so for boys Body fat increases More so for girls Brain Growth in Adolescence By the beginning of adolescence, the brain is 95% of adult size and weight Myelination and synaptic pruning are nearly complete Limbic system reaches maturity Helps regulate reward, desire, pleasure, and emotional experiences Frontal cortex continues developing Combine to make adolescents more risky because desire swamps inhibition VIDEO: Brain Development in Childhood & Adolescence Sexual Maturation Primary sex characteristics are the organs of reproduction Secondary sex characteristics denote physical signs of maturity not directly linked to reproduction Breasts and width of girls' pelvis Facial hair and broadening of shoulders in boys Vocal changes in both Occur in a predictable sequence for girls and boys Sexual Maturation (cont'd) Menarche is the onset of menstruation in girls (~13 years) First cycles are usually irregular and without ovulation Spermarche is the first spontaneous ejaculation of sperm-containing fluid (also 13) First ejaculations usually contain few sperm Sufficient sperm to fertilize an egg may take months or years to develop Mechanisms of Maturation The pituitary releases a growth hormone Also stimulates other glands to produce estrogen in girls and testosterone in boys Estrogen and testosterone are present in boys and girls but in different amounts Puberty's timing is genetically regulated and is affected by health and nutrition Menarche occurs earlier in countries or SES levels where nutrition and healthcare are better Girls start menarche earlier when stressed (e.g., when mothers had harshly punished them or had stressful relationships themselves) Mechanisms of Maturation (cont'd) Evolutionarily adaptive? Parental investment theory: experiences with quality of fathering determine puberty's timing Good fathers indicate males are invested in childcare, which delays puberty Bad fathers indicates males are not invested, which speeds up puberty on the chance of a good mate coming along Girls start menarche earlier when the father is absent due to divorce present, but psychologically distant or mentally "ill" VIDEO: Premature Puberty Psychological Impact of Puberty Body image Girls are more critical of their appearance and are likely to be dissatisfied Especially when friends often discuss appearance Boys are more likely to be pleased with appearance Most displeased when falling short of an idealized masculine body image Peers aren't the source of displeasure Response to Menarche and Spermarche Girls are moderately pleased by first menstruation, but irritated by its messiness Usually share the news with mothers right away and later with friends Traditional societies publicly celebrate menarche, but not industrialized ones Less is known about boys' reactions to spermarche Feel more positively if prepared for it (e.g., by reading) Rarely tell parents and friends Moodiness Rapid increases in hormones related to greater irritability and impulsivity, but not moodiness Adolescents are moodier than children or adults They experience more changes in activities and social settings each day Rate of Maturation Early maturer: 11 (boys); 9 (girls) Late maturer: 15-16 (boys); 14-15 (girls) Especially in conflicted, impoverished homes, early-maturing girls often are low in self-confidence less popular likelier to be depressed, show behavior problems, and smoke or drink may feel pressured into sex, becoming teen moms less prestigious jobs & pay Rate of Maturation (cont'd) Early maturation's effects on girls' sexual activity varies among U.S. ethnic groups No effect for African Americans European and Latin Americans 2x likelier to be sexually active European Americans: friends who exert the pressure tend to have problem behavior and poor grades Latinas: pressure comes mainly from older boys Rate of Maturation (cont'd) Confusing results from different studies about early maturation's effect on boys, who dated more often and felt positive about their physical self and athletic abilities found early or late maturation stressful ("off-time hypothesis") found puberty stressful regardless of timing Transition to puberty has fewer long-lasting effects for boys compared to girls 8.2 Health:Learning Objectives What are the elements of a healthy diet for adolescents? Why do some adolescents suffer from eating disorders? Do adolescents get enough exercise? What are the pros and cons of participating in sports in high school? What are common obstacles to healthy growth in adolescence? Nutrition High growth and metabolism rates require more calories for teens Girls: ~2,200/day Boys: ~2,700/day Extra iron needed to produce hemoglobin boys (muscle mass) and girls (replace lost blood) need; both need calcium (bones) Most U.S. teens consume enough calories, but most are "empty" or too fatty Too little iron: listless & moody Too little calcium: risk of osteoporosis Obesity Using BMI, 1 out of 6 teens are overweight, a number that has tripled in the past 25-30 years Overweight teens are unpopular, have low self-esteem, and put health at risk (e.g., high blood pressure, diabetes) When genes influence obesity, it is through effects on basal metabolic rate (speed of body burning off calories) TV affects eating via ads about tasty, fatty foods Parents affect eating habits by stressing external more than internal eating signals Obese Youths Can Lose Weight Successful interventions focus on setting and monitoring goals about eating, exercise, and sedentary behavior Parents are trained to help set realistic goals and to use behavioral principles in meeting them Parents also trained to monitor their own lifestyles to avoid fostering child obesity Only 20% of programs work; after losing weight, many still are overweight Best to prevent rather than intervene Anorexia & Bulimia Anorexia: eating disorder marked by an irrational fear of being overweight Grossly distorted body image About 15% of anorexic adolescents die Bulimia: eating disorder marked by binge eating and purging by vomiting or using laxatives Bingeing occurs only a few times to as many as 30 times per week Feel they cannot stop eating Most eating disordered are girls; 10% are boys Risk Factors for Anorexia & Bulimia Female, low self-esteem, or anxiety disorders Genes regulating anxiety and food intake Having been a picky eater or pica disorder Biggest risk factors are being overly concerned about weight and a history of dieting Peers and the media exacerbate these Overprotective parenting for anorexics and childhood obesity for bulimics Boys' specific risk factors are childhood obesity, low self-esteem, pressure to lose weight; sports stressing being lean VIDEO: Anorexia Nervosa Physical Fitness Regular activity: 30 minutes of exercise, at least three times a week; pace should adolescent's heart rate at ~140 beats/min Adolescents rarely get enough exercise Many adolescents engage in organized sports Boys participate more than girls, although the gap is narrowing Sports have been shown to enhance self-esteem and initiative, as well as help learn about cooperation and teamwork Physical Fitness (cont'd) Especially boys and younger students use steroids to enhance muscle size, strength, and recovery from injury As many as 5-10% of boys use steroids Can damage liver, reproductive system, skeleton, and cardiovascular system Can lead to mood swings, aggression, and depression Threats to Adolescent Well-Being Ethnic and gender differences in why 1/1,000 U.S. adolescents die/year African-American boys die most often from firearms, whereas motor vehicle accidents (MVAs) account for most other boys' deaths Girls' deaths: most MVAs or natural causes Death due to natural causes high in African Americans, but MVAs high in European Americans Equal prevalence of naturally- or MVA-caused deaths, accounting for 2/3 of Latina-, and Asian-American girls' deaths Threats to Adolescent Well-Being (cont'd) Adolescents overestimate risky behaviors' harmful potential Illusion of invulnerability: thinking others will be harmed, but not the self Exists in adolescents and young adults Ergo, cannot explain why adolescents are greater risk takers Adolescents more than young adults desire risk-associated rewards Adolescents' limbic system is more mature than their frontal cortex 8.3 Information Processing during Adolescence: Learning Objectives How do working memory and processing speed change in adolescence? How do increases in content knowledge, strategies, and metacognitive skill influence adolescent cognition? What changes in problem-solving and reasoning take place in adolescence? How Does Information Processing Improve in Adolescence? Adolescence is not a distinct stage for information-processing theorists This period is simply one in which rapidly changing childhood cognitive processes are "tweaked" to adult levels Changes do take place in certain areas of cognition Working Memory & Processing Speed Speed of cognitive processing changes little after age 12 Adolescents' working memory capacity is about the same as adults Their greater information-processing efficiency reflects increased axonal myelinization Allows more rapid neural communication Content Knowledge Adolescents are equally knowledgeable to adults in certain domains and more so in others (e.g., computers) This knowledge indirectly enables them to learn, understand, and remember more new experiences Strategies and Metacognitive Skill Adolescents can now identify task-specific strategies and monitor how well they are implementing them Outlining and highlighting text material Creating a master study plan Making lists of material they do vs. don't know well Problem-Solving and Reasoning Children use heuristics (rules of thumb), whereas adolescents are analytical and logical Ex: I have descriptions of 40 kids; 30 only play football and 10 only do gymnastics. One person was described as skinny, jumps rope, and likes The Little Mermaid. Is this person a football player or gymnast? Children would say "gymnast", attending to the concrete and stereotyped information More adolescents are likely to say "football player", using the probability information Problem-Solving and Reasoning (cont'd) Adolescents are skilled at finding weaknesses in arguments or flaws in reasoning Like adults, they sometimes use heuristics to find a "good enough," effortless solution Ex.: 2.2 x 2,027? Heuristic solution: 4,000 (2 x 2,000) Also like adults, their beliefs sometimes interfere with analytical, logical thought Ex.: "The U.S. has the best legal system on earth, because it treats all justly". Adolescent might cite examples of unjust trial outcomes. 8.4 Reasoning about Moral Issues:Learning Objectives How do adolescents reason about moral issues? Is moral reasoning similar in all cultures? How do concern for justice and caring for other people contribute to moral reasoning? What factors help promote more sophisticated reasoning about moral issues? Kohlberg's Theory Level 1 - preconventional: punishment & reward Stage 1: obedience to authority Stage 2: nice behavior in exchange for future favors Level 2 - conventional: social norms Stage 3: live up to others' expectations Stage 4: follow rules to maintain social order Kohlberg's Theory (cont'd) Level 3 - postconventional: moral codes Stage 5: adhere to a social contract when it is valid Stage 6: personal moral system based on abstract principles Individuals purportedly move progressively through the six stages In sequential order only Cannot skip stages Support for Kohlberg's Theory Longitudinal studies show that people do progress sequentially, do not skip stages Moral reasoning and moral behavior are linked However, moral reasoning is inconsistent across situations Ex: A teen classified at the conventional level, sometimes reasons at the preconventional level Certain cultures do progress through the six-stage sequence, somewhat supporting his claim of universality Cultural Differences in Moral Reasoning Some cultures do not stress individual rights and justice so central to Kohlberg's theory Hindus: stress caring and one's duty to others Cultures espousing different moral principles may differently resolve moral dilemmas Kohlberg's stages are not universal His theory applies mainly to Western philosophical and religious traditions Beyond Kohlberg's Theory Carol Gilligan criticized Kohlberg's theory as being geared to Western men, who stress a justice ethic Western women stress the ethics of care Results show very small gender differences Adolescents and adults of both genders will reason based on care or justice The situation affects whether and which reason dominates Promoting Moral Reasoning Being exposed to morally advanced behavior Open discussion of moral dilemmas with someone (e.g., parents) who reasons one stage higher Especially helpful when the more advanced partner paraphrases the other's viewpoint to highlight possible inconsistencies or other issues to consider Religious involvement and communities expose adolescents to caring people May promote a sense of duty to others and concern for others Think about it: correlation vs. causation?

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Chapter Seven Expanding Social Horizons: Socioemotional Development in Middle Childhood 7.1 Family Relationships:Learning Objectives What is a systems approach to parenting? What are the primary dimensions of parenting? How do they affect children's development? What determines how siblings get along? How do first-born, later-born, and only children differ? How do divorce and remarriage affect children? What factors lead children to be maltreated? The Family as a System Families exist for economic, emotional support, and childrearing purposes Exist in humans and a few nonhuman primates due to these children's inability to care for themselves Parents are not "all powerful" in shaping development, despite older theories Families function, influence, and are influenced within Bronfenbrenner's different systems, ranging from the micro to macro (e.g., parent/child interactions to the culture's larger institutions) Dimensions & Styles of Parenting Two general parenting dimensions Warm & responsive vs. hostile & uninvolved Extreme control vs. no control Children benefit from warmth & responsiveness plus intermediate amounts of control Four parenting styles result from combining the two dimensions and their two levels Parenting Styles Authoritarian parenting: high control but low warmth and responsiveness Dictatorial parents, who expect hard work, respect, and obedience Unhappy, overtly aggressive children with low self-esteem Authoritative parenting: greater control plus warm and responsive Parents explain rules and encourage discussion Children earn better grades Children are responsible, self-reliant, and friendly Parenting Styles (cont'd) Permissive parenting: low control but warm Indulgent parents, who use little punishment and simply accept their children's behavior Impulsive children with little self-control Uninvolved parenting: low control and warmth Indifferent parents, who provide mainly for the child's basic physical and emotional needs; spend minimal time with children Children earn poor grades and are aggressive Variations Associated with Culture and Socioeconomic Status Parenting styles vary across cultures European Americans: warm, exert moderate control, and value individualism Asians and Latin Americans: value cooperation and collaboration Chinese parents value emotional restraint and family harmony, thereby expressing less warmth Latino parents stress family ties, respect for family roles, thereby being protective of children and setting more rules (control) Variations Associated with Culture and Socioeconomic Status (cont'd) Parenting styles vary with SES within the U.S. Low SES entails stress due to low income, lesser education, and/or a need to protect children from danger May lessen the time and resources needed to engage in authoritative parenting May lead to greater authoritarian parenting (low warmth but high control) Parental Behavior How do specific parenting behaviors affect children? Direct instruction: telling children what to do, when, and explaining why Coaching: helping children master social and emotional skills; explaining links between behavior and emotions Both associated with socially skilled children who get along well with peers Most powerful when combined with modeling Parental Behavior (cont'd) Modeling: learning by observing and imitating what parents do and say Effective, especially if paired with counter-imitation (observational learning of what should not be done) Feedback through reinforcement (vs. punishment): strengthening desirable (vs. weakening undesirable) behaviors through rewards (vs. aversive consequences) Feedback What is negative reinforcement? It is any consequence that ends up both being "subtracted from" the environment (the negative part) as a result of another behavior making that other behavior likely to occur again in the future (the reinforcement part) Three-step process 1) Mom asks child to do something she/he doesn't want to do (e.g., clean room) 2) Child whines about not wanting to do it 3) Mom withdraws the request (gives in) Negative reinforcement is at play both in the mom's giving-in behavior and the child's whining—but how? Feedback (cont'd) Mom's "giving-in" behavior ends up "subtracting" the child's whining from the environment Ergo: mom is likelier to relent when the child whines in the future because she has learned that "giving in" stops the whining Child's "whining" behavior ends up "subtracting" the mom's request of the child Ergo: child is likelier to whine when mom makes some future request, because she/he has learned this leads to mom withdrawing the request This situation involves a negative reinforcement trap: unwittingly reinforces the very behavior parents wish to discourage Punishment Punishment is most effective when given immediately after the undesired behavior every time the undesired behavior happens with an explanation for why punishment occurred and ways to avoid it in the future in a warm and affectionate relationship Punishment definitely has side effects and drawbacks Punishment (cont'd) Punishment is primarily suppressive Temporarily stops immediate behavior, but does not teach appropriate replacement behaviors Children become upset and distracted May not be able to process the punishment's purpose Physical punishment may result in aggression as a means to resolve disputes with other children impaired mental health, parent-child relationships, and cognitive development Several countries have banned it Punishment (cont'd) Time-out: having the child sit alone briefly in a quiet, unstimulating location Isolates child from parents and rewarding stimulation Gives child and parents time to calm down When time-out is over, parent and child can discuss why it occurred and how to avoid it in the future Influences of the Marital System Harmful effects of chronic parental conflict jeopardizes children's feelings of a stable family makes child feel anxious, frightened, and sad affects the parent-child relationship diverts parents' attention away from high-quality parenting Unemployment or work stress can undermine parenting skills, upsetting and worrying the child Parents need to work as a team with each supporting the child in their unique ways The Reciprocal Influence of Children Parents and children affect each other's behavior and family (dys)functioning Parenting styles differ with the child's age, cognitive development, and temperament More reserved expressions of warmth as child grows older Adolescents desire more autonomy and input into decision-making Well-being flourishes as parents gradually relinquish control Temperamentally active and/or disagreeable children may require greater parental control Siblings Birth of a sibling can result in the older child withdrawing or regressing to childish behavior Responsive, involving parenting ameliorates Fathers become more involved with older child Toddlers talk more to mothers than to older siblings, but the opposite is true of 4-year-olds Sibling relationships are more harmonious in adolescence if same-sex and neither is too emotional when parents have a good relationship when parents are affectionate, caring, and responsive to all of their children Siblings (cont'd) Ethnic group differences in sources of high-quality sibling relationships More positive in African-American children with a stronger ethnic identity When Mexican-American children feel obligated to family and see it as an important source of support, siblings are closer and spend more time with each other Adopted Children 2-4% of U.S. children are adopted More children from other races and with special needs are being adopted due to European Americans' declining birth rates Most adopted children do quite well Are more prone to conduct disorders and school adjustment problems Likelier if child was older at adoption Related to pre-adoption care quality Adoptive parents may simply be likelier to report problems because of their affluence Impact of Birth Order First-born children often have enthusiastic but inexperienced parents have more affectionate, punitive parents with high expectations have higher IQ scores are more conforming likelier to go to college Impact of Birth Order (cont'd) Later-born children are less concerned about pleasing parents and adults more popular with peers and innovative Contrary to popular wisdom, only children are not more selfish or egotistical do succeed more often in school have higher levels of IQ, leadership, autonomy, and maturity What Aspects of Children's Lives Are Affected by Divorce? Divorce's effect on children Varies with time (e.g., greater now than the 1970s) Depends on parents cooperating with each other, especially about discipline Problems with school achievement, conduct, adjustment, self-concept, and parent-child relations Likelier to experience negative marriage attitudes, marital problems, and to divorce Less life satisfaction but more depression as adults What Aspects of Children's Lives Are Affected by Divorce? (cont'd) Joint custody: both parents retain legal custody An option only when parents get along Sole custody by the father is increasing, especially of sons In sole custody, children fare better with same-sex parent Both boys and girls forge stronger emotional relationships with the same-sex parent Sons are less likely to be involved in negative reinforcement traps with fathers than mothers How Divorce Influences Development Loss of a parent role model and supervisor, emotional support and help, economic hardship, and parental conflict may influence development Parental conflict especially affects emotionally insecure children Many child problems ascribed to divorce actually were caused by prior marital conflict Which Children Does Divorce Most Affect? More harmful when divorce occurs during childhood and adolescence than preschool or college years Divorce is more harmful to temperamentally emotional children and those who interpret events negatively Parents need to explain divorce's reasons to children, reassure them of their undying love and involvement, not compete for the child, and not criticize the ex in front of the child Children who try to make the divorce feel less threatening and use active problem-solving approach to coping suffer less Blended Families Most children live in a single-parent family for 5 years, but 2/3 of adults remarry, forming a blended family: Children, a stepparent, and biological parent Slightly higher divorce rates in second than first marriages, especially when there are stepchildren The children do less well in school and report more depression symptoms, but profit when both adults are caring Adolescents adjust the worst, especially when stepfathers bring their own children to the family Blended Families (cont'd) Stepfathers are reluctant to become involved, although their presence benefits boys (but not preadolescent girls) Stepfathers need to express interest in stepchildren Children side with the biological parent when the adults argue Parents sometimes favor biological children Both parents must make time for children and express affection Parent-Child Relationships Gone Awry:Child Maltreatment 3/4 million U.S. children neglected or abused in some way 75% neglect: inadequate food, clothing, or medical care 15% physical abuse: assault leading to physical injuries 10% sexual abuse: fondling, intercourse, or other sexual behaviors 5% psychological abuse: ridicule, rejection, or humiliation Who Are the Abusing Parents? The presence of only one cultural, social, parental, or child factor is unlikely to result in maltreatment Maltreatment risk is highest when cultures condone physical punishment, when parents lack effective skills, and the child's behavior is often aversive Spanking is common in the U.S. U.S. has higher child maltreatment rates than countries not condoning physical punishment (in Europe, Asia) Who Are the Abusing Parents? (cont'd) Stress of poverty, social isolation, and a family member deployed in a combat zone increase risk Parent-related risk factors for maltreatment if parents were maltreated as children (1/3 of them are likely to abuse their children) when parents use inconsistent discipline, have unrealistic expectations of children, or perceive themselves as powerIess to control them when husbands and wives perceive their relationship as unpredictable, unsupportive, and unsatisfying Who Are the Abusing Parents? (cont'd) Child-related risk factors for maltreatment children inadvertently contribute when they are infants, preschoolers, or frequently ill, likely due to the children being too young to regulate aversive behaviors parents becoming more easily annoyed (e.g., when child whines, needs greater attention) being a stepchild due to lesser parental emotional investment in the child Effects of Abuse on Children Even with no lasting physical damage, abused children tend to have poor peer relationships, due to aggressiveness; poor social skills and emotion regulation be disruptive at school; earn low grades and test scores have disturbed cognitive development experience more depression be more prone to abuse their children and to consider or attempt suicide as adults Resilience Protective factors Ego resilience: ability to respond adaptively and resourcefully to new situations Buffers against abuse's effects Children having positive representations of their mothers (e.g., "kind", "loving") Buffers against neglect's but not abuse's effects Preventing Abuse & Maltreatment Reducing positive attitudes toward physical punishment Reducing poverty and its stressful effects Maintaining social supports that advise parents and provide opportunities to vent Increasing counseling and training in parenting skills (e.g., for at-risk families due to child illness) Preventing Abuse & Maltreatment (cont'd) Preventing maltreatment is more cost-effective and desirable than intervening after it occurs Early childhood intervention programs 50% reduction in maltreatment's occurrence when families took part for two or more years Programs targeting older at-risk children "parent-child interaction therapy" helps parents build warm and positive relationships with children develop reasonable expectations and better disciplinary practices 7.2 Peers:Learning Objectives What are the benefits of friendship? What are the important features of groups of children and adolescents? How do these groups influence individuals? Why are some children more popular than others? What are the causes and consequences of being rejected? Why are some effects of childhood aggression? Why are some children chronic victims of aggression? Friendships Friendship: voluntary relationship of two people involving mutual liking Preschoolers: choose based on common interests and getting along well 8-to-11: above, plus psychological characteristics (e.g., trust, keeping promises, being helpful and dependable) Adolescents: above, plus loyalty and intimacy Fear humiliation if friends are disloyal Intimacy especially crucial for girls Girls tend to have an exclusive "best friend"; worry about faithfulness and being rejected Who Are Friends? Friends tend to be similar in age, of same-sex, and from the same race or ethnic group Latter less true if children's schools or neighborhoods are ethnically diverse Cross-group friendships help majority group children form more positive attitudes toward a minority Friends have similar interests, attitudes toward school, recreational pursuits, future plans, and drug use Who Are Friends? (cont'd) Opposite-sex friendships are rare, but equally likely for boys and girls Same-sexed and opposite-sexed peers befriend socially skilled children, who also tend to be more popular, well- adjusted, and academically successful have higher self-esteem Same-sex peers reject socially unskilled children, causing them to seek opposite-sexed friendships; they tend to be unpopular, less academically successful have lower self-esteem Quality and Consequences of Friendships Children benefit from good friendships Higher self-esteem Greater self-worth as adults Less likely to be lonely or depressed Act more prosocially Better cope with stresses Less likely to suffer peer victimization Quality and Consequences of Friendships (cont'd) Co-rumination: girls especially often discuss their personal problems Can enhance friendships Increases risk for depression and anxiety Risks of friendships Reinforce each other's aggressiveness Reinforce risky behaviors Groups Clique: small group of child or adolescent friends similar in attitudes, sex, race, and age Crowd: larger mixed-sex group of older children with similar attitudes and values Belonging to a higher-status crowd enhances self-esteem Children of parents who are authoritative join crowds endorsing adult behavioral standards neglectful or permissive join crowds disavowing these standards (e.g.,"druggie") Group Structure Dominance hierarchy: groups with a leader to whom others defer Boys: physical power determines who leads Girls and older boys: having the best skills to fulfill group's purpose determines who leads Being outgoing and having good ideas qualifies one to lead class projects Having camping experience qualifies one to lead at summer camps Peer Pressure Peer pressure: pressure to conform to group norms Most powerful when youth are younger and socially anxious peers are friends and/or of high status behavioral standards are ambiguous Can have both positive and negative effects Popularity and Rejection Five types of peer status Popular: most classmates like child Rejected: most classmates dislike child Controversial: classmates are divided; some like and others dislike child Average: are liked and disliked by some classmates, but with lower intensity than above categories Neglected: many classmates ignore the child Popularity and Rejection (cont'd) Two popularity subtypes exist in the U.S. "Positive" (most frequent): friendly, cooperative, helpful, communicative child, who is skilled academically and socially "Negative" (infrequent): physical (boys) vs. relational (girls) aggression used as a means to another end Characteristics of the "positive" subtype generalize across many cultures, but Israel: more direct and assertive China: more likely to be shy Popularity and Rejection (cont) Two rejected subtypes exist in the U.S. "Aggressive" (most frequent): hyperactive, socially unskilled, poor emotion regulation, and hostilely aggressive just for fun "Withdrawn" (infrequent): shy, timid, withdrawn, and lonely Causes and Consequences of Rejection Compared to popular children's parents, those of rejected children are belligerent, combative, intimidating, and aggressive during interpersonal conflict inconsistently discipline children and are not loving or warm when punishing them ...children ultimately imitate these behaviors Aggressive Children and Their Victims Instrumental aggression: using aggression to achieve an explicit goal Hostile aggression: unprovoked aggression used to intimidate or harass Relational aggression: hurting others by undermining their social relationships Aggressive Children and Their Victims (cont'd) Early childhood aggressiveness predicts adolescent and adult aggression (it's stable) Also results in poor high school adjustment and unemployment Chronic bullying victims have low self-esteem, dislike school, and are often lonely, anxious, and depressed Risks for being victimized include children either being aggressive themselves or withdrawn and submissive 7.3 Boob Tube or Window on the World?Learning Objectives What is the impact of watching television on children's attitudes, behavior, and cognitive development? How do children use computers at home? Influence on Attitudes & Social Behavior Typical high school graduate has watched two years' worth of TV (20,000 hours) Children learn gender stereotypes from TV TV violence viewing does increase aggressiveness, and watching impulsive models relates to children's impulsivity Little evidence of TV viewing affecting attention span, ability to concentrate, or passive, uncreative, and lazy thinking Watching positive programming (e.g., Sesame Street) relates to better high school grades and time spent reading Computers Like TV violence viewing, children who often play violent video games are more aggressive Playing video games emphasizing processing speed and spatial skills improve these 10% become addicted to playing video games and succeed less in school Social networking promotes self-disclosure, producing quality friendships and well-being, especially for boys 7.4 Understanding Others:Learning Objectives As children develop, how do their descriptions of others change? How does understanding of others' thinking change as children develop? When and why do children develop prejudice toward others? Describing Others Self- and other-descriptions become progressively richer, abstract, and psychological with cognitive development Age 7 : Mostly concrete terms 10 or less: Positive bias Age 10: Refer more to traits;  acknowledge negative traits 16 years: Traits integrated cohesively 4-to-5 years: can infer others' psychological traits if told behavioral examples (e.g., "selfish" if hearing a child won't share) Understandin

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Chapter Six Off to School: Cognitive and Physical Development in Middle Childhood 6.1 Cognitive Development:Learning Objectives What are the distinguishing characteristics of thought during Piaget's concrete-operational and formal-operational stages? How do children use strategies and monitoring to improve learning and remembering? More Sophisticated Thinking: Piaget's Version Concrete-operational period (7-11 years) Can perform mental operations - actions that can be performed on objects or ideas that yield a consistent result Mental operations are limited to concrete problems in the here and now Cannot deal effectively with abstract or hypothetical problems More Sophisticated Thinking: Piaget's Version (cont'd) Formal-operational period (11 years to adult) Can reason abstractly and hypothetically Understand that a hypothetical problem need not correspond to the real world Use deductive reasoning to draw logical conclusions from the facts Engage in combinatorial reasoning — generating all the different ways a given number of items can be arranged The Information-Processing View: Strategies for Learning and Remembering Working memory (WM): the temporary storage and use of information that one needs to perform a task (e.g., looking up and dialing a new phone number; taking a test) Limited in capacity and how long it lasts Most thought takes place in WM Long-term memory (LTM): the storehouse for memory that is permanent and of unlimited capacity Information is transferred into LTM, stored in it, and retrieved from it The Information-Processing View: Memory Strategies 7- to 8-year-olds: use less effective learning and memory strategies, such as rehearsal — simply repeating new information over and over in a rote fashion Older children: use more effective learning and memory strategies, including taking notes and keeping a calendar organization — structuring new information into related categories elaboration — making new information memorable by embellishing it The Information-Processing View: Metacognition Metamemory Our intuitive understanding of memory Diagnosing memory problems accurately and monitoring their effectiveness Children gradually understand memory through their theory of mind, including that memory is fallible some memory tasks are easier than others The Information-Processing View: Metacognition (cont'd) Metacognition: being aware of how perception, cognition, intentions, and knowledge work, and adjusting strategies related to each Metacognitive knowledge: understanding connections among goals, strategies, monitoring, and outcomes Cognitive self-regulation: identifying goals, selecting effective strategies, and monitoring accurately Successful learners better cognitively self-regulate 6.2 Aptitudes for School: Learning Objectives What is the nature of intelligence? Why were intelligence tests first developed? What are their features? How well do intelligence tests work? How do heredity and environment influence intelligence? How and why do test scores vary for different racial and ethnic groups? Theories of Intelligence Psychometricians: specialists trained in measuring psychological characteristics, such as intelligence and personality Test development Administer different tests intended to measure the same attribute to numerous people Determine whether scores on the different tests are highly positively correlated Yes? Tests could be valid, i.e., measure the same attribute, such as intelligence Theories of Intelligence (cont'd) Analyses of tests yielded several theories of intelligence (IQ), such as Spearman's g: IQ is due to one general factor (g) reflecting all aspects of ability The Thurstones: IQ consists of 7 specific abilities (e.g., perceptual speed, spatial relations) Hierarchical views: IQ consists of both general and specific components (there are several competing hierarchical theories) The Hierarchical View of Intelligence John Carroll (1993) There are three levels of IQ Top — the g factor (general IQ) Middle — 8 broad subcategories of IQ Lowest — several specific skills associated with each of the 8 subcategories His theory is purely psychometrically driven It ignores research and theory on cognitive development Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences Derived from several sources Piaget's and information-processing theories Studies of brain-damaged people Studies of exceptionally talented Nine types of intelligences (3 traditional; 6 not) 1-3: Linguistic, Logical-Mathematical, Spatial 4-9: Musical, Bodily-Kinesthetic, Intrapersonal, Interpersonal, Naturalistic, Existential Each has own developmental trajectory and is regulated by distinct brain regions Gardner's Theory (cont'd) Educational implications of Gardner's theory Schools should foster all 9 intelligences Teachers should capitalize on each child's strongest intelligence, but also engage many different intelligences Schools adopting these approaches report multiple student benefits Educational benefits are in need of more scientific testing Emotional Intelligence Goleman first synthesized relevant research Many models, such as Mayer et al.'s multi-dimensional one Perceiving different emotions accurately Understanding own and others' emotions Regulating one's emotions Higher scores on relevant tests predict more satisfying interpersonal relationships, greater self-esteem, and greater workplace effectiveness Sternberg: Theory of Successful Intelligence Successful intelligence is using one's abilities skillfully to achieve personal goals Some goals may be more or less appropriate depending on cultural or environmental context Personal goals are achieved via 3 abilities Analytic — analyzing problems and generating different solutions Creative— dealing adaptively with new situations and problems Practical — knowing which solution will work Binet & the Development of Intelligence Testing Binet & Simon: asked in 1904 to develop tasks to identify who would be unable to learn in French schools without special instruction First test distinguished between "bright" vs. "dull" children Mental age: difficulty of the problem a child solved correctly, such that bright children had an MA of children older than they were (e.g., 8-year-olds having an MA of 10) dull children had an MA of children younger than they were (e.g., 6-year-olds having an MA of 3) The Stanford Binet Lewis Terman at Stanford University adapted Binet & Simon's test Terman's intelligence quotient (IQ) compares person's mental age (MA) to chronological age (CA) IQ = MA/CA x 100 Average IQ score always is 100. Higher than average is +100. Lower than average is < 100. Example: 25/25 x 100 = 1.0 x 100 = 100 30/25 x 100 = 1.2 x 100 = 120 20/25 x 100 = 0.8 x 100 = 80 Intelligence Testing IQ tests no longer use the MA/CA comparison for computation of IQ Today, children's performance on IQ tests are compared to the average IQ scores of children their own age An IQ score = 100 denotes average > 100 is above average < 100 indicates less than average Contemporary IQ Tests The Stanford Binet V - the current (2003) version of Binet's test The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, 4th Edition (WISC-IV) The Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children, 2nd Edition (K-ABC-II) Do Tests Work? IQ test scores have been shown to predict school grades, achievement test scores, and years of education occupational success performance or earnings in complex jobs The predictions are not perfect Ex.: correlations range from .5 -.7 for school grades, achievement tests, and education Self-discipline can predict school grades better than IQ Hereditary & Environmental Factors Fraternal twins IQ scores are less similar than those for identical twins similar to siblings with the same biological parents more similar than those of adopted siblings Adopted children's IQ scores are more similar to their biological than adoptive parents; this effect is stronger with increasing age Fig. 6.3 shows greater similarity in siblings' IQ scores with greater genetic similarity Hereditary & Environmental Factors (cont'd) Children with high IQ scores have well-organized homes and lots of play materials IQ scores have increased by 10 points over a 25-year period Stimulating and responsive intervention programs can affect economically disadvantaged children's IQ The Impact of Interventions Studies show Head Start is effective in increasing basic reading readiness and social skills Intervention programs increase students' IQ and school achievement scores Economic and social consequences of poverty justify use of these interventions Impact of Ethnicity and Social Class Studies show differences in IQ scores among ethnic groups Asian Americans > European Americans > Hispanic Americans > African Americans These differences are impacted by socioeconomic status (SES) However, IQ test score differences persist after accounting for SES differences A Role for Genetics? While ethnic groups differ in IQ scores, heredity does not adequately explain them Most researchers agree that environmental influences are present Differences in IQ between ethnic groups reflect differences in environments within any one ethnic group are partly hereditary Experience with Test Contents Cultural biases in IQ tests may yield higher scores for economically advantaged European Americans lower scores for economically disadvantaged children from other ethnic groups Culturally-fair IQ tests include items based on common experiences across cultures Test-Taking Skills Ethnic groups differ in how much experience they have taking standardized tests These experiences may differentially affect test-taking skills Different ethnic or cultural groups may have test-taking skills that diverge from those required on IQ tests Stereotype Threat and Self-Affirmation Stereotype threat Self-fulfilling prophecy Anxiety and reduced test performance may result from knowledge about stereotypes concerning one's ability Self-affirmation: reminding the self of important values and why these are important (e.g., doing well in school) shown to reduce stereotype threat and to improve performance in African Americans VIDEO: Stereotype Threat Interpreting Test Scores Test scores show a child's adaptation to a particular cultural context; this may not be the child's dominant culture Most IQ tests predict success in schools with middle-class values Children scoring poorly may lack the skills required to succeed in that environment Intervention can improve those skills and, therefore, test scores Individuals differ in IQ more than ethnic groups do In all groups, we find both very low and high IQ scores 6.3 Special Children, Special Needs:Learning Objectives What are the characteristics of gifted and creative children? What are different forms of learning disability? What are the distinguishing features of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder? Gifted and Creative Children Giftedness: traditionally defined as an IQ score of 130 or higher Giftedness today: exceptional talent in areas such as art, music, writing, or dance Exceptional talent's prerequisites seem to be child's love for a subject and overwhelming desire to master it receiving early instruction from inspiring and talented teachers parental support, help, and commitment Creativity Convergent thinking: using available information to find a standard, correct answer Intelligence is often associated with convergent thinking Divergent thinking: thinking in novel and unusual directions to find many answers instead of a standard or correct answer list all the ways a paper plate and a thumbtack can be used together creativity is often linked to divergent thinking Creativity (cont'd) Creativity is likelier when parents or schools value nonconformity encourage children's curiosity emphasize self-expression and exploration inspire flexible thinking stimulate exploration of alternatives Children with Intellectual Disability Two diagnostic criteria for intellectual disability; both must emerge before 18 years of age Substantial limitations in intellectual ability, defined as IQ score ≤ 70 Problems adapting to the environment Intellectual disability is preferred to the older term mental retardation Mental retardation implies a personal deficit Intellectual disability conveys a poor fit between person's capacities and those needed in a particular context, such as school Children with Intellectual Disability (cont'd) Four risk factors Biomedical (chromosomal, malnutrition, traumatic brain injury) Social (poverty, poor parent-child relations) Behavioral (child neglect, domestic violence) Educational (poor parenting, poor services) Risk increases as more of these factors are present Children with Learning Disabilities A child with a learning disability has difficulty mastering an academic subject is of normal intelligence must not struggle due to some other condition (e.g., poor instruction, sensory deficits) Learning disabilities diagnosed in ± 5% of U.S. school-age children Children with Learning Disabilities (cont'd) Three common learning disabilities are Developmental dyslexia (aka reading disability) Impaired reading comprehension Developmental dyscalculia (aka mathematical disability) Children with Learning Disabilities (cont'd) (1) Children with developmental dyslexia struggle reading (decoding) individual words have phonological awareness difficulties in both oral and written language improve after phonological awareness training benefit from explicit instruction about connections between letters and sounds Developmental dyslexia is the most common learning disability Children with Learning Disabilities (cont'd) (2) Children with impaired reading comprehension can read (decode) individual words understand (comprehend) less of what they read have a limited vocabulary have difficulty linking a sentence's words together to derive coherent meaning Training in vocabulary and other language skills improves reading comprehension, suggesting that this learning disability is a byproduct of impaired oral (spoken) language Children with Learning Disabilities (cont'd) (3) Children with developmental dyscalculia constitute 5-10% of young children also may suffer from a reading disability have difficulty learning to count, add, or subtract as 3rd graders, still use fingers to count or add These children may be impaired in one or more of arithmetic-related memory retrieval or counting skills arithmetic-related cognitive processes (e.g., working memory, processing speed) their number sense (e.g., quantities, comparisons) Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Characteristics include overactivity, inattention, and impulsivity 3-5% of school-age children are diagnosed with ADHD Boys outnumber girls by 3:1 No evidence ADHD is caused by TV, food allergies, sugar, or poor home life Strong hereditary and biological components Risk factors are exposure to alcohol or drugs Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (cont'd) ADHD in childhood continues to manifest in 50% of adolescents and young adults Few complete college and some have work- or family-related problems ADHD is chronic and rarely misdiagnosed However, it is underdiagnosed in African-American and Hispanic-American children Effective treatments include continued stimulant drugs, such as Ritalin psychosocial interventions 6.4 Academic Skills:Learning Objectives What are the components of skilled reading? As children develop, how does their writing improve? How do arithmetic skills change during the elementary-school years? How do U.S. students compare to students from other countries? What are the hallmarks of effective schools and effective teachers? Reading Components of reading Word recognition — the process of identifying a unique pattern of letters Comprehension — the process of extracting meaning from a sequence of words Foundations of Reading Skill Knowledge of letter names Phonological awareness — knowing sounds by letter combinations Best predictor of reading success Reading to children promotes awareness Compared to other languages, learning to read in English is challenging due to inconsistencies in how sounds are spelled and letters are pronounced Recognizing Words Word recognition proceeds in steps while reading several words 1st word: decode the printed word by sounding out its letters, then store this decoding in LTM Next word: search LTM for matches to the letter sequence; retrieve successful matches If retrieval fails, sound out the word's letters or seek help from skilled readers Context affects the speed of letter and word recognition "Young Sally went to Disney World with her parents" vs. "The people at Disney World were parents" Comprehension Comprehension grows with increases in children's word recognition (decoding) skills vocabulary and grammatical knowledge working memory capacity general world knowledge use of appropriate reading strategies skills in monitoring how well they comprehend Writing Writing ability improves as children know more about a topic gain a better command of spelling, punctuation, and handwriting learn to plan, draft, revise, and proofread text rely less on a knowledge-telling strategy presenting information in the order it is retrieved from memory (unstructured) rely more on a knowledge-transforming strategy presenting only that information needed to achieve a specific goal (organized) Math Skills By 6 years of age, children solve simple addition by counting, usually on their fingers By 1st grade, children add and subtract by counting mentally By age 8 or 9, children know addition tables and can add single digits by memory Comparing U.S. Students with Students in Other Countries U.S. children's math skills rank near the bottom (15th) in a study of 20 leading nations—why? Compared to Japan or Taiwan, U.S. children spend 50% less time in school and less of this time is devoted to academics spend less time on homework and value it less Comparing U.S. Students with Students in Other Countries (cont'd) Compared to Asians, U.S. children's parents set lower standards, yet are more satisfied with children's school performance parents believe success is due more to native ability than effort (the opposite is true in Asia) homes are less likely to provide a quiet place to study teachers and parents seem less likely to perceive academic excellence as paramount Effective Schools, Effective Teachers: School-Based Influences U.S. schools are locally run, differing greatly in goals, values, policies, teaching practices, parental involvement, and outcomes Successful schools are known to have staff and students whose primary goal is academic excellence provide safe and nurturing climates involve parents formally and informally evaluate student, teacher, and program progress objectively and regularly Effective Schools, Effective Teachers: Teacher-Based Influences Students learn the most when teachers effectively manage the classroom assume responsibility for students' learning emphasize mastery of topics teach actively and encourage participation carefully pace material value individual, small group, and peer tutoring teach students how to monitor and manage their own learning 6.5 Physical Development:Learning Objectives How much do school-age children grow? How do motor skills improve during the elementary-school years? Are American children physically fit? What are the consequences of participating in sports? Growth Boys and girls are about the same size during the elementary-school years Girls are more likely to enter puberty toward the end of the elementary-school years At ages 11-12, the average girl is about ½ inch taller than the average boy The average 7- to 10-year-old needs a well-balanced diet of 2,400 calories/day Breakfast should comprise ¼ of these Development of Motor Skills Children at 11 can throw a ball three times farther than at 3, and jump twice as far Fine motor skill improvement is obvious in handwriting Gender Differences in Motor Skills Girls are better than boys in fine motor skills (e.g., handwriting) and certain gross motor skills (flexibility, balance) Boys do better in other gross motor skills (strength, throwing, catching, jumping, running) Boys' better strength is due to their bodies having relatively less fat but more muscle Boys' better remaining skills reflect the activities in which they are more involved Girls may spend less time on sports and fitness-related activities Physical Fitness Physical activities promote health < 50% of U.S. elementary school children meet national fitness standards Obesity is epidemic in U.S. children and adolescents Multiple risk factors for obesity Little physical education class time and its poor use Too much time spent in sedentary activities Participating in Sports Sports involvement promotes social skills and self-esteem; helps children learn initiative Children playing sports use cognitive skills to devise new game strategies Engaging in well-supervised sports plus other adult-led activities is beneficial Children lose interest in sports if these are too stressful and when adults overemphasize competition instead of skill development

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Children have developed the ability to... Follow the form of an argument without having to know anything about its content For example... A is bigger than B, B is bigger than C and so A is bigger than C. They do not have to know what A,B or C are They can also think... Hypothetically- they can think about what could be as well as what actually is What kind of concepts can they think about- with example Abstract concepts such as humans having tails Formal Operational thinkers however, are not limited to thinking about previously acquired facts because... they can generate hypotheses, whats possible is more important to them than what is real Children can think... Inductively (specific to broad generalisations) This is typically the way... scientists think when they generate hypotheses and test them systematically In this stage, children can approach problems in a ...way due to... -systematic -hypothetical deductive reasoning (they can come up with a hypothesis and do tests on it) Evidence comes from... The experiment involved... studies performed by Piaget in 1958 A pendulum on a strong was tested to see if the length of string, size of pendulum and force it was pushed with affected speed by children Results shown that... Pre-operational children thought only force affected it Concrete-operational children often said it was the strength length but couldnt seperate it from the others (they had no system, it was random) Formal operational children managed to solve the problem by working out systematically, testing one feature at a time. However this study lacks ecological validity because... It is a very ambiguous and unrealistic task. Children hardly ever push pendulums in reality (if ever) Plus, they may have found the experiment tedious. Piaget (...) believed that the transition from concrete operations to formal operational reasioning takes place very gradually because... -1970 -11-13 year olds can consider simply hypothetical propositions such as having a third eye but arent good at generating and testing them (they will say to put it on your face rather than your eye or somewhere creative) Other investigators found that adolescents are... much slower to acquire formal operations than piaget thought Literature reviews suggest that actually... a lot of american adults do not reason at a formal level, and it seems that some culutures have no adults can solve piagets formal operational problems Cross-cultral research suggests that this is because of... A lack of schooling that stresses logic, mathematics and science Piaget believed that these experiences... helps the child to reason at a formal level However, Piaget sugested another possibility, it may be that almost all adults can reason at the formal level but... they only do so on problems they find interesting or are vitally important to them An example is... Australian Bushman hunters who fail at Piagets test problems but can reason at the formal level on tracking prey as this requires systematic testing of hypotheses We see a familiar phenomenon with... high school college students. They reason more abstractly about relevant everyday issues that theyre already familiar with, but physics and social science students are all more likely to perform at the formal level that fall within their own subject areas The fact that formal operational thinking is found more often among young people or adults in western or other industrialised cultures can be interpreted as... being due to the fact that such cultures include high levels of technology and complex styles that demand more formal operational thought Therefore all non-retarded people have the capacity for formal logic but... only those of us whose lives demand its development will actually acquire it All of these explanations go against the very notion of... a universal stage of thinking in adolescence, yes more abstract forms of thinking may develop in adolescence but theyre neither universal nor broadly used by individual teenagers or adults Whether one develops or uses these forms of logic depends heavily on... experience, expertise and environmental demand Brief A01's for Formal Operational Stage -Can follow an argument without having to know about content -Can think hypothetically, abstract concepts -can generate hypotheses and think inductively -Piaget (1970) Brief A02's for Formal Operational Stage -Evidence for systematic thinking from Piaget (1958) -Adolescents slower to acquire formal operations than Piaget thought -Cross cultural studies, schooling that stresses logic -Australian bush men -High school students -Due to technology and complex lifestyles, only developed if we require it -All explanations go against a universal stage of thinking

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Howard Gardner theory of multiple intelligences Theory Gardner believed that being smart and quick at learning an area doesn't mean that they are smarter than the next kid. another kid may even be looking at and understanding the multiplication process at a fundamentally deeper level. mathematical This area has to do with logic, abstractions, reasoning and numbers and critical thinking. While it is often assumed that those with this intelligence naturally excel in mathematics, chess, computer programming and other logical or numerical activities, a more accurate definition places less emphasis on traditional mathematical ability and more on reasoning capabilities, recognizing abstract patterns, scientific thinking and investigation and the ability to perform complex calculations.[citation needed] Logical reasoning is closely linked to fluid intelligence and to general ability.[6] Spatial This area deals with spatial judgment and the ability to visualize with the mind's eye. Careers which suit those with this type of intelligence include artists, designers and architects. A spatial person is also good with puzzles.[citation needed] Spatial ability is one of the three factors beneath g in the hierarchical model of intelligence. Linguistic This area has to do with words, spoken or written. People with high verbal-linguistic intelligence display a facility with words and languages. They are typically good at reading, writing, telling stories and memorizing words along with dates. They tend to learn best by reading, taking notes, listening to lectures, and by discussing and debating about what they have learned.[citation needed] Those with verbal-linguistic intelligence learn foreign languages very easily as they have high verbal memory and recall, and an ability to understand and manipulate syntax and structure.[citation needed] Verbal ability is one of the most g-loaded abilities.[7] kinesthetic The core elements of the bodily-kinesthetic intelligence are control of one's bodily motions and the capacity to handle objects skillfully (206). Gardner elaborates to say that this intelligence also includes a sense of timing, a clear sense of the goal of a physical action, along with the ability to train responses so they become like reflexes. In theory, people who have bodily-kinesthetic intelligence should learn better by involving muscular movement (e.g. getting up and moving around into the learning experience), and are generally good at physical activities such as sports or dance. They may enjoy acting or performing, and in general they are good at building and making things. They often learn best by doing something physically, rather than by reading or hearing about it. Those with strong bodily-kinesthetic intelligence seem to use what might be termed "muscle memory," drawing on it to supplement or in extreme cases even substitute for other skills such as verbal memory. Musical This area has to do with sensitivity to sounds, rhythms, tones, and music. People with a high musical intelligence normally have good pitch and may even have absolute pitch, and are able to sing, play musical instruments, and compose music. Since there is a strong auditory component to this intelligence, those who are strongest in it may learn best via lecture. Language skills are typically highly developed in those whose base intelligence is musical. In addition, they will sometimes use songs or rhythms to learn. They have sensitivity to rhythm, pitch, meter, tone, melody or timbre. Interpersonal his area has to do with interaction with others. Interpersonal intelligence is the ability to understand others. In theory, individuals who have high interpersonal intelligence are characterized by their sensitivity to others' moods, feelings, temperaments and motivations, and their ability to cooperate in order to work as part of a group. According to Gardner in, How Are Kids Smart: Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom, "Inter- and Intra- personal intelligence is often misunderstood with being extroverted or liking other people..."[10] Interpersonal intelligence means that you understand what people need to work well. Individuals with this intelligence communicate effectively and empathize easily with others, and may be either leaders or followers. They typically learn best by working with others and often enjoy discussion and debate. Intrapersonal This area has to do with introspective and self-reflective capacities. This refers to having a deep understanding of the self; what your strengths/ weaknesses are, what makes you unique, being able to predict your own reactions/emotions. Philosophical and critical thinking is common with this intelligence. Many people with this intelligence are authors, psychologists, counselors, philosophers, and members of the clergy. Naturalistic This area has to do with nurturing and relating information to one's natural surroundings. Examples include classifying natural forms such as animal and plant species and rocks and mountain types; and the applied knowledge of nature in farming, mining, etc. Existential

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SPERMARCHE first ejaculation, usually around 13 MENARCHE first menustration, usually around 10-16 1/2

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Sensori-motor (Birth-2 yrs) Differentiates self from objects. Recognizes self as agent of action and begins to act intentionally: e.g. pulls a string to set mobile in motion or shakes a rattle to make a noise . Achieves object permanence: realizes that things continue to exist even when no longer present to the sense. Pre-operational (2-7 years) Learns to use language and to represent objects by images and words. Thinking is still egocentric: has difficulty taking the viewpoint of others. Pre-operational (2-7 years) Classifies objects by a single feature: e.g. groups together all the red blocks regardless of shape or all the square blocks regardless of colour. Concrete Operational (7-11 yrs) Can think logically about objects and events. Achieves conservation of number (age 6), mass (age 7), and weight (age 9). Classifies objects according to several features and can order them in series along a single dimension such as size. Formal operational (11 years and up) Becomes concerned with the hypothetical, the future, and ideological problems. Can think logically about abstract propositions and test hypotheses systemtically.

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Universal ethical principles Characteristic of Kohlberg's Stage 6, in which moral reasoning is based on moral principles that apply to all

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Verbal or Linguistic reading, writing, speech Logic-Mathematical math, science, scientific experiments, strategic games Visual-Spacial drawing, architecture, puzzles, rubick's cube, mazes Bodily-Kinesthetic dancer, runner, sporty Musical-Rythmic musically inclined Interpersonal sensitivity to others' feelings Intrapersonal insight into one's own feelings Naturalist understanding of nature and laws that govern it Existential can see the big picture

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menarche

onset of menstruation

primary sex characteristics

physical signs of maturity that are directly linked to the reproductive organs