chapter 7
distributive justice
perceived fairness of outcomes received by employees ex. I got the pay raise I deserved or the raises being distributed based on who needs it most or equally among employees -employees tend to perceive outcomes as fairest when they are distributed equitably -in theory, people evaluate these ratios and distributive judgments on logic, but often people base it on feeling or emotional reaction to the way they think they're being treated relative to others
contemporary theories of motivation
-each has reasonable degree of valid supporting documentation -latest thinking in explaining employee motivation -not unquestionably right tho -self-determination theory, goal-setting theory, self-efficacy, reinforcement, and expectancy theory
instrumentality
-the performance-reward relationship -the degree to which the individual believes performing at a particular level will lead to the attainment of a desired outcome
valence
-the rewards-personal goals relationship -the degree to which organizational rewards satisfy an individual's personal goals or needs and the attractiveness of those potential rewards for the individual
goal setting and ethics
when emphasizing attainment of goals, what's the cost? depends on stds we set for goal achievement -when money is tied to goal attainment, may focus on getting money and become willing to compromise ourselves ethically, but if we're instead primed w/ thoughts abt how we are spending our time when pursuing the goal, we are more likely to act more ethically -time pressure can tempt us to act unethically to achieve it
justice outcomes
when employees feel fairly treated, they respond in many positive ways -all types of justice have been linked to hgiher levels of task performance (more strongly associated w/ distributive and procedural) and citizenship behaviors and lower counterproductive behaviors (more associated w/ informational and interpersonal) -fair treatment enhances commitment to org and makes employees feel like they care abt their well-being etc -fair treatment elicits positive emotions which in turn prompts behaviors like citizenship -observer or third party interactions also may affect -perceived injustices are still likely to occur b/c fairness is subjective
arousal
-arousal leads to an energized state, so we get "psyched up", feel up to the task, and perform better -but if task requires a steady, lower-key perspective, arousal may hurt performance as it increases self-efficacy b/c we might hurry thru task
organizational errors involving reinforcement
-confusing rewards with reinforces -neglecting diversity in preferences for reinforcers -neglecting imp sources of reinforcement
Are highly engaged employees getting to much of a good thing?
-construct is partially redundant w/ job attitudes -it may have a dark side - positive relationships b/w engagement and work-family conflict
reducing an undesirable behavior
-extinction strategy: terminating a reinforcement that maintains an unwanted behavior (works best when coupled w/ reinforcement of a desired subsitute behavior) -punishment strategy: the application of an aversive stimulus following some unwanted behavior (imp to provide an acceptable alternative for the punished response
need for achievement research
-has most research (by mcclelland and others -generally, high achievers perform best when they perceive their probability of success as 0.5 (50/50) b/c dislike gambling w/ high odds b/c get no achievement satisfaction from success that comes by pure chance and dislike low odds (high probability of success) b/c then there's no challenge, so like to set goals that require stretching themselves a little
equity theory's research support
-has support from some researchers, but not all -some concerns w/ the propositions like inequities created by overpayment don't seem to significantly affect behavior in most work situations, so don't expect an employee who feels overpaid to put in more hours or give back part of salary, they'll usually rationalize it instead and not everyone is equally equity-sensitive, including their feelings of entitlement -predictions from equity theory are not liekly to be very accurate abt these benevolent types -although all propostions haven't held up, hypothesis serves as an important precursor to the study of org justice
applicability of McClelland's theory
-has the best support, but is less practical effect than others -b/c McClelland argued the three needs are subconscious (we may rank on them but not know it ), measuring them isn't easy -the process is time consuming and expensive and few orgs have been willing to invest in measuring McClelland's concept
reinforcement theory
-in it's pure form, ignores feelings, attitudes, expectations and other cognitive variables known to affect behavior -some researchers look at the same experiments reinforcement theorists use to support their position and interpret the findings in a cognitive framework -undoubtedly an imp. influence on behavior, but few scholars are prepared to argue that it's the only one
problems and solutions when punishing
-it indicates only what isn't appropriate -only temporarily suppresses the unwanted behavior -can provoke a strong emotional reaction solutions: -provide alternative -limit the emotions -truly aversive -immediately or when appropriate (context_ -don't reward unacceptable behaviors
verbal persuasion
we become more confident when someone convinces us we have the skills necessary to be successful -motivational speakers use this tactic
does expectancy theory work?
-it tends to be more valid in situations where effort-performance and performance-reward linkages are clearly perceived by the individual -if individuals were actually rewarded for performance rather than seniority, effort, skill level, and job difficulty, it might be much more valid
criticisms of herzberg's theory
-limited b/c it relies on self-reports -reliability of methodology is questioned - ex. if hygiene and motivational factors are equally imp. to a person, both should be capable of motivating -no overall measure of satisfaction was utilized -Herzberg assumed a relationship b/w satisfaction and productivity but the research methodology he used only looked at satisfaction, not productivity -two-factor hasn't been well supported in research, but has been quite influential and used in many studies in asian countries like Japan and india
how can mgers use the two-factor theory?
-managers that seek to eliminate factors that can create job dissatisfaction may bring abt peace but not necessarily motivation (b/c of dual continuum), they'll be placating their workers -to motivate, we should emphasize factors associated w/ the work itself or w/ outcomes directly derived from it such as promotional opportunities, personal growth, opportunities, recognition, responsibility, and achievement b/c these are the characteristics people find intrinsically rewarding
nPow (need for power) and nAff research
-nPow also has research support, but it may be more familiar to people in broad terms (ex. to obtain power) than in relation to the original definition (to make people behave how you want) -nAff is also well established and accepted in research -best managers may be high in their need for power and low in their need for affliation
personality and mcclelland's theory
-personalities may affect whether we can satisfy these needs
negative reinforcement
-removal of a negative stimulus from the situation b/c behavior will be repeated (maintained) to avoid undesired outcome -goal is to icnrease probability that behavior is maintained by the employees -ex. getting work done on time to avoid a reprimand or a shipping clerk whose boss is a chronic nagger learns that she has filled an order properly when the boss stops nagging -NR tend to be unpleasant things but its effectiveness depends on whether it maintains the desired behavior
evidence suggests
-specific goals increase performance b/c it acts as an internal stimulus and gives a specific objective to perform to -difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than do easy goals b/c employee will exert more effort to achieve it -feedback leads to higher performance than does non-feedback; helps identify discrepancies and guide their behavior; self-generated feedback is more powerful than externally
What makes people more engaged in their job?
-the degree to which an employee believes it is meaningful to engage in work -a match b/w the individual's values and the org's -leadership behaviors that inspire workers to a greater sense of mission
expectancy
-the effort-performance relationship -probability perceived by the individual that exerting a given amount of effort will lead to performance
herzberg's continuum
-the opposite of satisfaction isn't dissatisfaction b/c removing dissatisfying characteristics from a job doesn't necessarily make the job satisfying; thus a dual continuum -the opposite of satisfaction is no satisfaction (motivators) and the opposite of dissatisfaction is no dissatisfaction (hygiene factors) -therefore, factors that lead to job satisfaction are separate and distinct from those that lead to job dissatisfaction
evaluate the applicability of early theories of motivation (theory x and theory y)
-theory x assumptions are basically negative - employees inherently dislike work and must be coerced into performing -theory y assumptions are basically positive - employees can view work as being natural as rest or play -implications for mgers can be explained by using Maslow's framework: theory x: lower-order needs dominate individual, but theory y: higher-order needs dominate individuals; McGregor himself believed that theory y assummptions were more valid than x -no evidence to suggest either set of assumptions is valid -based on nAch research, can predict some job performance -employees w/ high level of nAch, tend to exhibit more positive moods and be more interested in task at hand, and tend to perform v well in high-stakes conditions on the job like work walkthroughs or sales encounters
early theories of motivation
-three theories of employee motivation formulated during the 1950s are probs the best known -even tho now they're of questionable validity, still represent a foundation of motivation theory and many practicing managers still use their terminology -Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory, McClelland's Theory of Needs
influencing self-efficacy in others
-training programs often make use of enactive mastery by having people practice and build their skills -can use verbal persuasion thru pygmalion effect (believing something can make it true, will create self-fulfilling results)
apply self-determination theory
-when extrinsic rewards are used as payoffs for performance, employees feel they are doing a good job -eliminating extrinsic rewards can also shift an individual's perception of they work on a task from an external to an internal explanation -self-determination theory acknowledges that extrinsic rewards can improve even intrinsic motivation under specific circumstances -pursuing goals from intrinsic motives (like strong interest in the work itself) is more sustaining to human motivation than extrinsic rewards -a senior sales rep may be motivated by extrinsic like commision, but a computer programmer who values writing code may react negatively to extrinsic -orgs should provide intrinsic and extrinsic incentives and individuals should choose their job fro reasons other than extrinsic rewards -orgs can increase certain behaviors of interest from employees by connecting them w/ goals imp. to them
when employees perceive an inequity, they can be predicted to make one of six choices
1. change their inputs (exert less effort if underpaid or more if overpaid) 2. change their outcomes (individuals paid on piece-rate basis can increase their pay by producing a higher quantity of units of lower quality) 3. distort perceptions of self (I used to think I worked at moderate pace, but now I realize I work a lot harder than everyone else 4. distort perceptions of others (mike's job isn't as desirable as I thought) 5. choose a different referent (i may not make as much as my brother, but I'm doing better than dad when he was my age) 6. leave the field (quit)
how does expectancy theory help explain why workers aren't motivated on their jobs and only do minimum to get by?
1. if they give maximum effort, will their performance be recognized? -for many workers, the answer is no b/c they may be deficient (ie regardless of how hard they try, they're not likely to be high performers) or the org's system may be designed to assess nonperformance factors so more effort might not result in higher evaluation or they perceive that their boss doesn't like them, so expect a poor appraisal regardless of effort 2. if they get a good performance appraisal, will it lead to organizational rewards? - many orgs reward things besides performance and when pay is based on factors such as having seniority, being cooperative or sucking up to the boss, employees are likely to see the performance-reward relationship as weak and demotivating 3. if rewarded, are the rewards attractive to them? may not work hard if reward isn't something that they want
five needs in hierarchy of needs
1. physiological: includes mainly bodily needs like hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, etc. 2. safety-security: security and protection from physical and emotional harm 3. social-belongingness: affection, belongingness, acceptance and friendship 4. esteem: internal factors like self-respect, autonomy, and achievement and external factors such as status, recognition, and attn 5. self-actualization: drive to become what we are capable of becoming; includes growth, achieving our potential, and self-fulfillment -as each need becomes satisfied, the next one becomes dominant (IE need to move up the pyramid)
people differ in the way they regulate their thoughts and behaviors during goal pursuit (two categories)
1. promotion focus: strive for advancement and accomplishment and approach conditions that move them closer toward desired goals 2. prevention focus: strive to fulfill duties and obligations and avoid conditions that pull them away from desired goals -generally people fall into one of two categories, though they could belong to both -ex. to study for exam, those w/ promotion would read class material, make flashcards,etc and those w/ prevention focus would focus on not doing things like video games that would get in the way of studying -ideally it's best to be both promotion and prevention-oriented -promotion focus is realted to higher levels of task performance, citizenship behavior, and innovation; a prevention focus is related to safety performance, but is also affects job satisfaction more heavily w/ low success
Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs
Maslow hypothesizes that w/in every human being there is a hierarchy of five needs -best-known theory of motivation, wide recognition, particularly among practicing mgers -research doesn't generally validate theory, but some researchers have attempted to revive components of the need hierarchy concept using principles from evolutionary psychology -recently a sixth has been proposed for highest level (intrinsic value) which is said to have originated from Maslow but has yet to receive widespread acceptance
implications for mgers
`-maker sure extrinsic rewards for employees aren't viewed as coercive, but instead provide info abt competence and relatedness -consider goal-setting theory, as clear and difficult goals often lead to higher levels of employee productivity -consider reinforcement theory regarding quality and quantity of work, persistence of effort, absenteeism, tardiness and accident rates -consult equity theory to help understand productivity, satisfaction, absence, and turnover variables -expectancy theory also offers a powerful explanation of performance variables such as employee productivity, absenteeism, and turnover
persistence
a measure of how long a person can maintain his/her effort -motivated individuals stay w/ a task long enough to achieve their goals -one of 3 key elements of motivation
retention processes
a model's influence depends on how well the individual remembers the model's action after the model is no longer readily available
reinforcement theory
a motivational theory suggesting that behavior is a function of its consequences -goal setting is cognitive approach (an individual's purposes direct their action) for contrast -see behavior as environmentally caused, so you don't need to argue w/ internal cognitive events b/c what controls behavior are reinforcers - any consequences that, when they immediately follow responses, increase the probability that the behavior will be repeated -ignores inner state of individual and focuses solely on what happens when takes action -it's not technically a motivation theory b/c doesn't concern itself w/ what initiates behavior, but does provide powerful means of analyzing what controls behavior so is considered
task characteristics
goals seem to affect performance more strongly when tasks are simple rather than complex, and when the tasks are independent rather than interdependent -on interdependent tasks, group goals along w/ delegation for tasks are preferable -goal abandonment following a initial failure is more likely for individuals who self-affirm their core values, possibly b/c they internalize the implications of failure more strongly than others do
MBO (management by objectives)
a program that encompasses specific goals (tangible, verifiable, and measurable), participatively set, for an explicit time period, w/ feedback on goal progress -organization's overall objectives are translated into specific cascading objectives for each level (divisional, departmental, and individual), but b/c lower unit mgers jointly participate in setting their own goals, MBO works from bottom up as well as top down -four ingredients are common to MBO programs: goal specificity, participation in decision making (including setting of goals), an explicit time period, and performance feedback
equity theory
a theory stating that individuals compare their job inputs (effort, experience, education, etc) and outcomes (promotions, pay, recognition) with those of others and then respond to eliminate any inequity -if we believe our ratio is equal to those w/ whom we compare ourselves, a state of equity exists and we perceive our situation as fair -employees who perceive inequity will make one of six choices: change inputs, change outcomes, distort perceptions of self, distort perceptions of others, chose a different referent, or leave the field
Herzberg's two factor theory
a theory that relates intrinsic factors to job satisfaction and associates extrinsic factors w/ dissatisfaction -also called motivation-hygiene theory -intrinsic factors like achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement, responsibility and growth seem related to job satisfaction -respondents who felt good abt their work tended to attribute these factors to their situations while dissatisfied respondents tended to cite extrinsic factors such as policy and discrimination, supervision, relationship w/ supervisor, pay, company policies, work conditions, and relationship w/ peers
cognitive evaluation theory
a version of self-determination theory in which allocating extrinsic rewards for behavior that had been previously intrinsically rewarding tends to decrease the overall level of motivation if the rewards are seen as controlling -research on self-determination theory has focused on this component-suggests that providing extrinsic incentives may, in many cases, undermine intrinsic motivation
punishment
adding a negative stimulus following an undesired/unproductive behavior/work performance b/c behavior that gets punished will not be repeated -goal is to decrease the probabili8ty that an undesired behavioral outcome isn't repeated, ex. lots of error on vital acct report of major client -ex. criticizing poor quality work, pay cut, no pay raise, no promotion -eliminating behavior
social-belongingness
affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship -level 3 of maslow's hierarchy
motor reproduction processes
after a person has seen a new behavior by observing the model, watching must be converted to doing -this process demonstrates that the individual can perform the modeled activities
increasing self-efficacy in your self
albert bandura (who developed it) proposes four ways that self-efficacy can be increased 1. enactive mastery 2. vicarious modeling 3. verbal persuasion 4. arousal -enactive mastery is most imp -intelligence and personality aren't on list but can also increase self-efficacy; people who are intelligent, conscientiousness, and emotionally stable are more likly to have high self-efficacy
factors contributing to individual job performance
amt of effort, persistence of effort, direction of effort which all lead to motivation which when coupled with general cognitive ability, emotional intelligence, personality, task understanding, and chance = performance
self-efficacy theory
an individual's belief that they're capable of performing a task, component of social cognitive or social-learning theory -the higher your self-efficacy, the more confidence you have in your ability to succeed -in difficult situations, people w/ low self-efficacy are more liekly to lessen their effort or give up altogether, while those w/ high self-efficacy will try harder -alfred bandura -enactive mastery, vicarious modeling, verbal persuasion, arousal -can (but not always) create a positive spiral in which those w/ high efficacy become more engaged in their tasks and then in turn increase performance which increases efficacy further -associated w/ higher level of increased task performance -individuals high in self-efficacy seem to respond to negative feedback w/ increased effort and motivation while those w/ low are likely to lessen their effort
organizational justice
an overall perception of what's fair in the workplace, composed of distributive, procedural, informational, and interpersonal justice -concerned more broadly w/ how employees feel authorities and decision makers at work treat them -ex. I think this is a fair place to work
positive reinforcement
application or addition of a positive stimulus to situation b/c behavior that gets rewarded gets repeated -goal is to increase probability that behavior is maintained -ex. providing praise for a job well done or an apprentice machinist learns to operate a machine correctly as the master machinist praises his performance over time
expectancy theory
argues that a tendency to act in a certain way depends on an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual -an employee will be motivated to exert a high level of effort when they believe that effort will lead to a good performance appraisal, a good appraisal will lead to rewards, and the rewards will satisfy his or her personal goals -TF focuses on three relationships: effort-performance (expectancy), performance-reward (instrumentality), and rewards-personal goals (valence)relationship -Victor Vroom
vicarious modeling
becoming more confident b/c you see someone else doing the task -most effective when you see yourself as similar to person you're observing (ex. watching tiger woods vs. your friend)
operant conditioning theory
people learn to behave to get something they want or to avoid -unlike reflexive or unlearned behavior, it's influenced by the reinforcement or lack of reinforcement brought abt by consequences -reinforcement strengthens behavior and increases the likelihood it will be repeated
B.F. Skinner's behaviorism
behaviorism argues that behavior follows stimuli in a relatively unthinking manner -concept of operant conditioning was part of Skinner's broader concept of behaviorism and he was one of most prominent advocates of operant conditioning -skinner also demonstrated that people will most likely engage in desired behaviors if they are positively reinforced for doing so; rewards are most effective if they immediately follow the desired response, and behavior that is not rewarded or punished is less likely to be repeated -skinner's form of radical behaviorism rejects feelings, thoughts, and other states of mind that cause behavior; people learn to associate stimulus and response but their conscious awareness of association is irrelevant -ex. commissioned salesperson sells as much as possible -can also encourage behaviors that work against the best interests of the organization
self-concordance
considers how strongly people's reasons for pursuing goals are consistent w/ their interests and core values
promoting justice
depends on the mger -some mgers are likely to calculate justice by their degree of adherence to the justice rules of the organization; these mgers will try to gain greater subordinate compliance w/ behavioral expectations, create an identity of being fair to their employees, or establish norms of fairness other mgers may be motivated in justice decisions by their emotions (when they have a high postive affect and/or low neg affect, these mgers are more likely to act fairly) -might be tempting for orgs to adopt strong justice guidelines, but this isn't likely to be universally effective
goal setting theory and self-efficacy theory
don't compete w/ each other, they complement each other -if a mger sets difficult, specific goal for job or task, the individual has confidence that given level of performance will be attained (self-efficacy), the individual sets higher personal (self-set) goal for their performance, and individual has higher level of task performance
self-actualization
drive to become what we are capable of becoming; includes growth, achieving out potential, and self-fulfillment -level 5 of maslow's hierarchy
hygiene factors
factors such as company policy and administration, supervision, and salary, that when adequate in a job, placate workers -when these factors are adequate people will not be dissatisfied (or satisfied)
motivator factors
factors that lead to satisfaction (or no satisfaction)
enactive mastery
gaining relevant experience w/ the task or job -if you've been able to do the job successfully in the past, you're more confident that you can do it in the future
implementing goal-setting theory
goal-setting often left up to individual mger to do like set stretch goals or more systemically with management by objectives initiative that was most popular in the 70s but is still used today
goal commitment
goal-setting theory assumes an individual is committed to the goal and determined t olower or abandon it -the individual believes that they can achieve the goal and wants to achieve it -most likely to occur when employees expect that their efforts will pay off in goal attainment when accomplishing the goal is attractive to them, and when they actively participate in goal setting
concerns abt goal setting
has positive outcomes, but it's not unequivocally beneficial -some gaols may be too effective -ex. when learning something is imp., goals related to performance undermine adaptation and creativity b/c people focus on outcomes instead of learning process -not all goals are equally effective, for rote tasks w/ quantifiable stds of productivity can be highly motivating -fort other jobs that require complex thinking and personal investment, goals and rewards for quantity may not be effective, and inidividuals may fail to giv eup on an unattainable goal even when might be beneficial
intensity
how hard a person tries -the element we usually focus on, but high intensity is unlikely to lead to favorable job performance outcomes unless the effort is channeled in a direction that benefits org -thus why we consider quality of effort and its direction as well -one of 3 key elements of motivation
how can Maslow's hierarchy be used to motivate?
if you want to motivate someone, you need to understand what level of the hierarchy that person is currently on and focus on satisfying needs at or above that level
physiological
includes bodily needs like hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and other bodily needs -level 1 of maslow's hierarchy
expectancy theory process
individual effort (effort-performance relationship) to individual performance (performance-reward relationship) to organizational rewards (rewards-personal goals relationship) to personal goals
reinforcement processes
individuals are motivated to exhibit the modeled behavior if positive incentives or rewards are provided -positively reinforced behaviors are given more attention, learned better, and performed more often
esteem
internal factors like self-respect, autonomy, and achievement, and external factors such as status, recognition, and attn -level 4 of maslow's hierarchy
job engagement
investment of an employee's physical, cognitive, and emotional energies into job performance -many studies attempt to measure this deeper level of commitment -Gallup org: more engaged employees in successful orgs than avg orgs -academic studies: job engagement is positively associated w/ performance and citizenship behaviors
social recognition
involves informal acknowledgement, praise, or genuine appreciation for work well done from one individual to another -if made contingent on employee behavior, perforamnce improvement
performance feedback
involves providing quantitiative or qualitative info on past performance for purpose of changing or maintaining performance -most effective when is in a positive manner, immediately after, represented visually, specific to the behavior
ratio comparisons (equity theory)
my ratio < theirs = inequity due to being underrewarded my ratio = theirs = equity my ratio > theirs = inequity due to being overrewarded
extinction
not recognizing undesired behaviors (like not responding to attempts at humor in staff meetings) -witholding a reward will weaken the probability that the same behavior is repeated -ex. not laughing at racist or sexist comments or jokes -goal is to decrease the probability that behavior isn't maintained -sometimes if the mgers fail to recognize good productive behaviors, it becomes counterproductive, so be careful on this
attentional processes
people learn from a model only when they recognize and pay attention to its critical features -we tend to be influenced by models that are attractive, repeatedly available, important to use, or similar to us (in our estimation)
procedural fairness
perceived fairness of process used to determine outcome ex. I had input into the process used to give raises and was given a good explanation of why I received the raise I did -if outcomes are favorable and individuals get what they want, they care less about the process, so procedural justice doesn't matter as much when distributions are perceived to fair -if employees are given a voice when experiencing unfavorable outcomes and element of fair process, they will feel better abt situation even when outcomes continue to be poor -employees perceive procedures are fairer when they're given a say in the decision-making process b/c having direct influence over how decisions are made, or at least being able to our opinion creates sense of control and makes us feel empowered -employees also perceive that procedures are fairer when decision makers follow several rules, including making decisions in a consistent manner (across people and over time), avoiding bias (not favoring one group or person over another), using accurate information, considering the groups or people that their decisions affect, acting ethically, and remaining open to appeals or correction
maintaining a desired behavior
positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement
self-determination theory
proposes that people prefer to feel they have control over their actions, and anything that makes a previously enjoyed task feel more like an obligation than a freely chosen activity, undermines motivation -extrinsic rewards reduce intrinsic interest b/c if feels more like something they have to do, not want to do -proposes that people are driven by need for autonomy, to achieve competence, and make connections w/ others; autonomy is most important for attitudinal and affective outcomes, whereas the comepetence need appears to be most important for predicting performance
interpersonal justice
reflects whether employees are treated w/ dignity and respect -compared to others, is unique b/c can occur in everyday interactions -allows mgers to take advantage of (or miss out on) opportunities to make their employees feel fairly treated
learning
relatively permanent change in behavior potential as a result of practice or experience -prompting learning from an environment that provides feedback concerning the consequences of behavior -employees learn practical skills (job-specific, knowledge, technical competence), intrapersonal skills (problem solving, critical thinking, risk taking), interpersonal (communicating, teamwork, conflict resolution), and the social norms and expections of org
culture and justice
same basic principles of procedural justice are respected: workers around the world prefer rewards based on performance and skills over rewards based on seniority, but inputs and outcomes are valued differently in various cutlures -ex. materialistic cultures are more likely to see cash compensation as the most relevant outcomes of work whereas relational cultures will see social rewards and status as important outcomes
safety-security
security and protection from physical and emotional harm -level 2 of maslow's hierarchy
interactional justice
sensitivity to the quality of interpersonal treatment -ex. When telling me abt my raise, my supervisor was v nice and complimentary -made up of informational justice and interpersonal justice
national culture
setting specific, difficult, individual goals may have different effects in different cultures -in collectivist, high power-distance cultures, achievable moderate goals can be more difficult than difficult, but assigned goals appear to generate greater goal commitment in high than low-power distance cultures -research hasn't shown that group based goals are more effective in collectivist than in individualist cultures
difference b/w social cognitive theory and operant learning theory
social: -unlike OLT, there is an emphasis on the role of cognitive processes in regulating people's behavior -learning can be purposeful or goal oriented -cause and effect relationships are learned OLT: -learning is trial and error -subject learns to operate on teh environment to achieve certain outcomes/consequences -behavior >>> the consequence connection leads to learning -cognitive capacity of human beings is ignored under this theory
operant learning theory
subject learns to operate on the environment to achieve certain consequences -behavior is the consequence connection that leads to learning -can be used to maintain a desired behavior or eliminate an undesirable behavior -steps: 1. antecedents: conditions leading up to behavior (ex. mger shows employee how to do a job) 2. behavior: activity performed (ex. employee performs job properly) 3. consequences: results of the behavior (ex. mger praises employee)
informational justice
the degree to which employees are provided truthful explanations for decisions -the more detailed and candid mgers are w/ employees, the more fairly treated those employees feel -even bad news is beneficial when they take the form of excuses after the fact rather than justifications
difficulties of mcclelland's
the degree to which we have each of the three needs is difficult to measure and therefor the theory is difficult to put into practice -a behavior may be directed at satisfying many different needs, and many different behaviors may be directed at satisfying one given need, making needs difficult to isolate and examine
need for affiliation (nAff)
the desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships
need for achievement (nAch)
the drive to excel, to achieve in relationship to a set of stds
need for power (nPow)
the need to make others behave in a way that they would not have otherwise
direction
the orientation that benefits an organization -effort directed toward and consistent w/ the organization's goals is the kind of effort we should be seeking -one of 3 key elements of motivation
motivation
the process that account for an individual's intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal -level varies b/w individuals and w/in individuals at different times -three key elements are intensity, direction, and persistence
social-learning theory
the view that we can learn through both observation and direct experience -much of what we have learned comes from watching models - parents, teachers, peers, etc. -is an extension of operant conditioning (assumes behavior is a function of consequences), but still acknowledges the effects of observational learning and perception -people respond to the way they perceive and define consequences, not the objective consequences themselves -models are central to viewpoint, and four processes determine their influence on an individual: attentional, retention, motor reproduction, and reinforcement processes
goal-setting theory
theory stating that specific and difficult goals, w/ feedback, lead to higher performance; intentions to work toward a goal are considered a major source of work motivation -Edwin Locke -goals tell an employee what needs to be done and how much effort is needed -feedback, specificity, difficulty -3 personal factors influence goals-performance relationship: goal commitment, task characteristics, and national culture
mclelland's theory of needs
theory that states that achievement, power, and affiliation are three important needs that help explain motivation -developed by David McClelland -more similar to motivating factors than strict needs for survival -has reasearch support across cultures, particularly when cultural dimensions including power distance are considered
