Chapter 7

cognitive learning

-The acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language. - Observational learning is a form: It lets us learn from others' experiences - Mental information that guides behavior is acquired

predictability

The more predictable the association between a neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus, the stronger the conditioned response. It's as if the animal learns an expectancy, an awareness of how likely it is that the US will occur

successive approximations

responses that are ever-closer to the final desired behavior are rewarded, and all other responses are ignored

evidence of cognitive processes

-Animal response on fixed-interval reinforcement schedule. -Development of cognitive maps in rats (latent learning that only becomes evident when there is an incentive to demonstrate it). -Intrinsic motivation: A desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake. Extrinsic motivation: A desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

five major processes of associate learning

- developed by Pavlov - acquisition - extinction - spontaneous recovery - generalization - discrimination

reinforcement schedule

-A pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

delayed reinforcer

Involves time delay between desired response of and delivery of reward

primary reinforcer

Is unlearned; innately reinforcing stimuli, such as those that satisfy biological needs

discrimination

Learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus (which predicts the US) and other irrelevant stimuli

operant conditioning at school

Electronic technologies and adaptive learning software used in teaching and learning have helped realize Skinner's goal of individually paced, customized instruction with immediate feedback

shaping

Gradually guiding behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

neutral stimulus (NS)

In classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

unconditioned stimulus (US)

In classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers an unconditioned response (UR)

unconditioned response (UR)

In classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth)

postive reinforcement

Increases behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response

operant conditioning at work

Rewards successfully used to increase productivity and skill development

punishment

administers an undesirable consequence or withdraws something desirable in an attempt to decrease the frequency of a behavior (a child's disobedience).

stimulus

an event or situation that evokes a response

instinctive drift

when animals revert to biologically predisposed patterns

extinction

•Diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS)

conditioned response (CR)

•In classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)

conditioned stimulus (CS)

•In classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus, that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR)

acquisition

•Initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response

associative learning

•Learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).

behaviorism

•Psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. •Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

spontaneous recovery

•Reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

variable-ratio schedule

-Reinforcing a response after an unpredictable number of responses

operant conditioning at home

Basic rules of shaping used in parenting, and to reinforce our own desired behaviors

Pavlov

- A tube in the dog's cheek collects saliva, which is measured in a cylinder outside the chamber. -Pavlov studied the digestive system; recipient of Russia's first Nobel Prize (1904). An incidental observation triggered his new direction

antisocial effects

-Abusive parents may have aggressive children -Watching TV and videos may teach children •Bullying is effective tool for controlling others •Free and easy sex doesn't have later consequences •Men should be tough; women should be gentle -Violence-viewing effect demonstrated when viewing media violence triggers violent behavior -Watching cruelty may foster indifference

biological constraints

-Evolved biological tendencies that predispose animals' behavior and learning, making certain behaviors more easy to learn than others -Garcia and Koelling's taste-aversion research -Animals including humans seem biologically prepared to learn some associations rather than others -Conditioning is stronger when the CS is ecologically relevant -Genetic predisposition to associate CS with a US that follows predictably and immediately is adaptive -Nature limits species' capacity for operant conditioning -Biological constraints predispose organisms to learn associations that are naturally adaptive

mirror neurons

-Frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so; provide a neural basis for everyday imitation and observational learning. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathy

observational learning

-Higher animals, especially humans, learn without direct experience by watching and imitating others -Albert Bandura is the pioneering researcher of observational learning, famous for the Bobo doll experiment

Why is Pavlov's work important?

-Pavlov demonstrated how a learning process can be studied objectively. -Classical conditioning is a basic form of learning that applies to all species. -Consensus among psychologists that classical conditioning is a basic form of learning -Pavlov's principles are used to influence human health and well-being -Areas of consciousness, motivation, emotion, health, psychological disorders, therapy -Addicts counseled to avoid stimuli (for example, people and settings) that may trigger cravings -Pairing particular taste with drug that influences immune responses may eventually lead to immune response from taste alone •Pavlov's work also provided a basis for Watson's ideas that human emotions and behaviors, though biologically influenced, are mainly a bundle of conditioned responses. •Watson applied classical conditioning principles in his studies of "Little Albert" to demonstrate how specific fears might be conditioned. •Watson boasted that he could take any healthy infant and train for any career specialization, regardless of any inborn traits, but later admitted to "going beyond his facts."

positive punishment

-Presenting a negative consequence after an undesired behavior is exhibited, making the behavior less likely to happen in the future

prosocial effects

-Prosocial modeling of behavior can have prosocial effects -Behavior modeling enhances learning of communication, sales, and customer service skills in new employees -Modeling nonviolent, helpful behavior prompts similar behavior in others -Research across seven countries showed that viewing prosocial media increased later helping behavior -Socially responsive toddlers tend to have strong internalized conscience as preschoolers -Models most effective with consistent actions and words

variable-interval schedule

-Reinforcing a response at unpredictable time intervals

fixed-ratio schedule

-Reinforcing a response only after a specified number of responses

fixed-interval schedule

-Reinforcing a response only after a specified time has elapsed

generalization

-Tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses -Pavlov tested this by attaching vibrators to a dog

partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule

-Reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

continuous reinforcement schedule

-Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

negative punishment

-Removing a desired stimulus after particular undesired behavior is exhibited, resulting in reducing behavior in future

operant conditioning

-a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher. -Actions followed by reinforcers increase; those followed by punishment decrease. -Operant behavior is behavior that operates on the environment to produce rewarding or punishing stimuli. (In contrast, classical conditioning involves respondent behavior—automatic responses to a stimulus.)

classical conditioning vs operant conditioning

-classical: we associate stimuli that we do not control, and we automatically respond (exhibiting respondent behaviors) - Type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events -operant: we associate a response (our behavior) and its consequence (producing operant behaviors) •Both classical and operant conditioning are forms of associative learning. Both involve acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination. Classical conditional involves respondent behaviors and operant conditioning involves operant behaviors.

B.F. Skinner

-modern behaviorism's most influential and controversial figure. -Expanded on Edward L. Thorndike's law of effect, which states that rewarded behavior tends to recur. -Developed behavioral technology that revealed principles of behavior control. -Designed and used an operant chamber (popularly known as a Skinner box) for experiments that included a bar (a lever) that an animal presses (or a key or disc the animal pecks) to release a reward of food or water, and also a device that records these responses

imitation

-the human predisposition to learn from watching adults that children will overimitate, copying even irrelevant adult actions. -Brain response to observing others makes emotions contagious.

modeling

-the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior -The Bobo doll experiment showed direct imitation by children of the adult behavior •Vicarious reinforcement and vicarious punishment experienced by watching models

conditioned (secondary) reinforcer

A stimulus that gains power through association with primary reinforcer

reinforcement

Any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

operant conditioning in sports

Behavioral methods implemented in shaping behavior in athletic performance

negative reinforcement

Increases behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli. A negative reinforce is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: Negative reinforcement is not punishment.)

immediate reinforcer

Occurs immediately after a behavior

Learning

Process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring information or behaviors