Chapter 7

How do school board members view themselves?

As trustee representatives selected to serve because of their educational expertise and good judgment. Others view them as delegate representatives responsible for implementing the will of the public.

Why is there a difference in schoolboards from state to state?

Because the constitution did not mention education so each state created its own school systems.

Why was Michigan sued by Detroit Public School students?

Because the poor graduates from this school did not know how to read. They argued Michigan was not meeting its constitutional obligation for an adequate education. Michigan argued other factors such as poverty and poor parents were the reasons behind the illiteracy. Michigan said an adequate education was being provided even if the graduating students could not read.

Why do some states not support raising the sales and income taxes to support school funding?

Because they determined additional funds were not needed to educate English language learners, students in poverty, or special needs students.

How can students understand marketing messages?

By being taught media literacy which empowers children to understand and confront the market messages that manipulate them. Classrooms can be places where children discuss underlying values implicit in consumerism and its impact on the planet themselves. Educators can help children connect with healthy alternatives such as exploring nature, developing creative talents, discovering community service etc. to avoid focusing on consumerism.

How can underfunded schools succeed?

By having the schools' staff and teachers work closely with communities and families, holding high expectations for staff and students and providing assistance to both when needed, assessing students frequently, using targeted teaching when necessary, by having teachers help others become better at their work, working as teams to plan lessons and analyze challenges, building trusting relationships among the faculty and with students and parents, and building a positive school culture.

WHat is the difference between categorical and block grants?

Categorical grants identify critical education areas for federal support but block grants give the states the power to make their own spending decisions

In most schools teachers are expected to

Comply with policies made by principals and by district and state officials

WHat is collaborative decision making?

Creates teacher committees to share power between the principal and the faculty

What is decentralization?

Creating charter schools operating without central office involvement

What did the 1954 Supreme court Brown decision do?

Desegregated the nation's schools. The civil rights laws that followed increased educational opportunities for students of color, limited speakers of English students with disabilities, and females.

Is there a clear relationship between spending and student learning?

No

Misconception about the constitution?

Our constitution does NOT say HOW we should fund those schools; many people believe it does.

Who has covert power?

Parents, vocal individuals, the school secretary, and community groups. they can bring significant pressure to bear on which teachers stay in a school and which leave. They consist the hidden gov of schools.

What were Robin Hood reformers?

People who took funds from wealthy districts and redistributed them to poorer districts

What differs in different states involving the school board?

In some states school boards and chief state school officials are elected in others they are appointed. Even the name for the chief state school officer differs from place to place; superintendent, commissioner, or even secretary of education.

How did the 2008 recession affect schools?

It caused many states to cut school budgets affecting the neediest students. When recovery was happening, many states decided not to restore the money to public education.

WHat is site-based or school based management?

It shifts decision making from the central district office to individual schools

What are block grants?

Large sums of money given directly to the states with few strings attached. They reduce the obligations, rules, and competition associated with seeking federal dollars.

Where does school funding come from?

Local gov 45%, state resources 46%, federal resources 9%

What was Maryland's "Bridge to Excellence" program?

Maryland's attempt to raise funding for inadequate schools; they invested 80% of the additional funds for teacher salaries and hiring, particularly those working with poor and special education students as well as English Language Learners.

What states are ranked at the top in school funding?

Maryland, Massachusetts and New Jersey. Louisiana, Arizona, Alabama, Kansas, and Mississippi are at the bottom.

What is consolidation?

Merging smaller schools and districts into larger ones

What are today's property taxes based on?

Real estate (homes and businesses) and sometimes personal property (cars and boats)

Political agendas at the state level did what?

Reduced the funding for public schools, their teachers, and students.

Who considers different ideas for improving education?

The governor, legislature, state superintendent, or the state school board.

Who share the biggest burden of funding schools?

The local and state governments with the federal government responsible for just 6-8% of the total.

What did Supreme Court Justice Potter Stewart say?

The method of financing public schools... can be fairly described as chaotic and unjust

What happened in Abbott v Burke 1990,1998?

The state court in New Jersey identified 28 failing districts (the Abbott districts) where the rights of poor students were being denied. The court mandated that significantly greater funds be spent to transform their students into productive members of society.

Who is the most powerful education officer in the school district?

The superintendent; they are responsible for budgets, buildings, new programs, daily operations, long-term goals, short-term results, and recruiting, hiring, demoting, and firing personnel.

WHat do state govs control?

levy taxes, license teachers and educators, set standards for school attendance and safety, outline curricular and graduation standards.

Local school district superintendents are

often mediating conflicts, civil service-type administrators, sometimes powerless figureheads

Most school board members are

white, male, and middle or upper class

Colonial days?

¨Wealth was measured by the size of your land ¨The more land/ the more wealth/you paid more ¨ ¨This was the beginning of property taxes

Who might be considered part of the "hidden school government"?

the school secretary, parents

How much do teachers spend a year buying classroom materials?

$500

Why do Americans tolerate dramatic inequities in school funding?

1. Local control- Americans believe local taxes should be used to educate neighboring children because colonial times and the constitution left educational funding up local govs. 2. Horatio Alger- The rags-to-riches story of Horatio Alger symbolizes the American belief that wealth and success are the fruits of individual efforts and that individual's circumstances are obstacles to be overcome. This means people believe poverty occurs because of lack of effort and talent. 3. Genetics- The notion that certain groups are genetically brighter than others is a recurring theme in America 4. CUlture of poverty- Some believe poor people live in and are shaped by the problems in impoverished communities that cannot be remedied through additional school funding.

Where does state funding for education come from?

1. Sales tax- (a charge added to all sales). The sales tax accounts for 30% of the typical state's income. More than 40 states use a 2-8% sales tax. issues: Some people avoid the tax by taking their business to neighboring states. The tax is regressive meaning it hurts poor families more than rich ones because the poor spend most of their income buying necessities so most of their money is being taxed

Where does state funding for education come from? pt 2

2. Personal Income Tax (used in more than 40 states)- this brings in more than 25% of state revenues. It is collected through payroll deductions, money deducted before you receive your paycheck. The tax is a percentage of income and each state determines how equally or unequally the tax burden falls on the poor, middle class, and the rich. 3. Other Revenue sources- Other common state sources of funding include excise taxes (on tobacco, gas, and liquor sometimes known as a sin tax), severance tax (based on the state's mineral wealth), motor vehicle license fees, estate or gift taxes, and state lotteries.

How much of the federal govs funding goes towards public education?

3% and most of it goes towards secondary education not pre-K-12

Why do Americans tolerate dramatic inequities in school funding? pt 2

5. Flawed studies- The classic Coleman study from the 1960s reported school quality and funding had less of an effect on student achievement than family background or peer groups, that schools mattered very little. Studies like this have been cited for major flaws and research has shown that money CAN make a difference but the mis-belief that it does not persists. 6. Previous funding increases have not resulted in achievement gains- Critics point out education spending has increased but test scores have not. However, new funds were targeted at improved instruction but spent on specific educational needs like special ed, dropout prevention, expanded school lunch programs, or regular teacher salaries. These are important but not linked to test scores. 7. Unaware of how other nations fund and manage schools- Other countries fund and manage schools quite differently and we can learn from them.

What did New Jersey's Abbott cases inspire?

A new line of litigation focusing on educational outcome (student achievement) rather than financial output (per-pupil expidentures).

Who was Demetrio Rodriguez?

A sheet-metal worker who found his children's elementary school Edgewood Elementary School was not receiving sufficient funding compared to Alamo Heights, a school ten minutes away. Edgewood residents paid higher tax rates on their property than any other Texas community but their property was not worth much. They could raise only $37 per student where Alamo Heights raised $412. Rodriguez went to court saying the system violated the US constitution's guarantee for equal protection under the law.

What do school districts-local school boards and superintendents do?

All states other than Hawaii have delegated responsibilities for local school operations to local school districts. Most school districts mirror the state organization with a local school board that is usually elected, a superintendent, and an office of education. Local school districts may be responsible for school construction, taxing, budgeting, the hiring of school personnel, curriculum decisions, and local school policy. Although school districts operate at the lower level, their authority derives from the state and they must operate within the rules and regulations specified by the state.

How was adequate education defined in Maryland?

As a school with at least 94% attendance, less than 4% dropout rate, and 70% passing rate

How does the type of election used to select school board members shape the school board? pt 2

District-wide, at-large elections typically result in more elite, politically conservative, and upper-class individuals being elected to school boards. Poorer citizens, people of color, and women are less likely to find themselves on at-large school boards.

How were schools founded in the agrarian society of colonial times?

Farm owners paid a property tax.

What is the state board of education responsible for?

Formulating educational policy. The members are usually appointed by the governor, but sometimes they are chosen in a statewide election.

What did James Rosenberg do?

Founded Adopt-A-Classroom which partnered under-resourced classrooms with caring individuals.

What are categorical grants?

Funds directed at specific categories and targeted educational needs. THey have provided funding for preschool programs for poor children, library construction, acquisition of new technology, educational opportunities for veterans, the training of teachers and administrators, educational reform, lunches for low-income youth, and loans to college students. By targeting funds, financial aid though limited, has had a significant impact in schools

What do local school districts control?

Implement state regulations and policies, create and implement local policies and practices for effective school administration, hire school personnel, provide funds and build appropriate facilities, fix salaries and working conditions, translate community needs into educational practice, initiate additional curriculum licensing or other requirements beyond the state's, create current and long-range plans for the district

When were the first superintendents hired?

In 1837 in Louisville. It was to relieve school boards of their growing administrative problems. Originally, they supervised and hired teachers, examined students, bought supplies, developed examinations, chose textbooks, and trained teachers

How did the financing of schools get so messy?

In colonial America schools were the concern of local communities. When the constitution was later formed it did not designate a federal role in education meaning it was left to the states. "Local Control" became a well-established tradition that remains today.

What are the criticism of the school boards? pt 2

School boards have been in the backseat when it comes to educational change and reform-they do not support current educational reform proposals and members have lagged behind public opinion on issues such as school choice and charter schools. The education of children goes beyond school issues to include health, social, and nutritional concerns. School boards are too limited in scope to respond to all the concerns of children. If schools continue to be financed less from local funds and more from state funds, local boards could become less influential. Many of the new reforms call for new governance organization, site-based management, or choice programs that relegate the school board to a less important or unnecessary role.

How does branding impact schools?

School districts now sell the naming rights of athletic facilities, school buildings, and offer companies the opportunity to put corporate logos on their textbooks. Sometimes the corporation pays the school for getting students and parents to buy their products.

What contributes to a sense of teacher powerlessness?

Size of the school, top-down deision making

What have school boards symbolized?

Small-town democracy.

What is adequate education?

States, at their discretion, must provide adequate education. Sometimes called: efficient education, a sound basic education or thorough education. It is well known education is not equal and states do not have to guarantee it will be equal for all.

What did the NAtional Assessment of Education Progress NAEP find when they looked at test scores in 49 states, comparing states that increased funding to poorer communities with states that did not?

THe study revealed the test scores improved in states that invested additional money to improve classroom instruction in their lowest-income districts. States that did not invest in poorer students experienced no test gains. Money targeted to instruction made a significant difference for NAEP test scores but test scores are not the only measure of success.

What is the systematic problem with school funding?

That even if every state provided every school district with adequate funding and a great education plan, the economic gaps between the states would still be enormous; because of the constitution this is a problem the US seems unable to fix.

What did the firm McKinsey & Co. estimate in 2009?

That the under-education of poor and minority students costs the US between $1.3 trillion and $2.3 trillion in GDP a year. Meaning when communities and nations cut educational spending they lose more than they save

What happened with the California Supreme Court case Serrano v Priest in 1971?

The California Supreme Court struck down on the state's financing system as unconstitutional. They took note of Beverly Hills that raised $1232 per student and nearby Baldwin Park that raised only $577 per student and declared education was a fundamental right under the California constitution and the property tax system violated that protection of that right. They found heavy reliance on the local property tax "makes the quality of a child's education a function of the wealth of his parents and neighbors... districts with small tax bases simply cannot levy taxes at a rate sufficient to produce the revenue that more affluent districts produce with a minimum effort" This court decision brought in a litigation in other states and an increase in the state share of school funding.

What happened in San Antonio V. Rodriguez? (1973)

The supreme court ruled against Rodriguez, deferring to the history of local communities funding neighborhood schools. THe court declared education was not a "fundamental right" under the constitution and preserving local control was a legitimate reason to use the property tax system. The court did however recognize educational funding through the property tax was a flawed system but said it was left to the states to change it.

How many public schools are there in America

There are over 100,000 public schools in America

what is the role of the school secretary?

They are the eyes and ears for the principal. They have more power than you will ever know They can help with problems, or create problems}Be kind and patient, be thoughtful, ask about their family etc...

What does research suggest about well-spent funds?

They can reduce the achievement gap, but adequate education does not even attempt to equalize spending; it simply tries to ensure a fundamental level of learning for all students.

What are the criticism of the school boards?

They have become immersed in administrative details at the expense of more important and appropriate policy issues. School boards are not representing local communities, but only special interest groups. The politics of local school board elections has a negative impact on attracting and retaining superintendents and leads to conflict with state education agencies. The composition of the boards is not representative with individuals of color, women, the poor, and the young unrepresented or underrepresented.

What do some schools do to increase attendance?

They offer prizes paid for by local businesses.

What does the state department of education do?

They perform the administrative tasks needed to implement state policy. This includes licensing teachers, testing student progress, providing information and training to teachers, distributing state and federal funds, seeing that local school systems comply with state laws, and conducting educational research and development. The state superintendent usually manages state department of education activities.

What happens when local governments need to replace aging school buildings?

They resort to issuing bonds. A bond is a certificate of debt issued by a gov guaranteeing payment of the original investment plus interest by a specified future date. Bonds give the local communities the money they need to build the schools and 15-20 years to pay off the debt.

What did the Center on Budget and Policy Priorities find?

They surveyed 24 states and found 21 were spending less on education in 2012 than in 2011; with inflation considered, 17 were spending less than they did in 2008 even though the costs for education and other services had risen.

WHat is the chief state school officer in charge of?

This is the superintendent, commissioner, secretary of education, or director of instructor. They oversee, regulate, and plan school activities as well as implement the policies of the board of education but sometimes campaigns for the position in an election.

What is an educational partnership?

This is when companies formalize a relationship with a school by dedicating personnel or products or signing exclusive rights contracts

What is aspirational marketing?

This is where advertisers intentionally market older products to younger children. Ex- young girls are targeted for sexy adolescent clothes although they lack the maturity to understand the strong social messages wearing such clothes sends.

Does money matter?

Those wishing to keep taxes low argue some school districts that received a significant increase in funding were doing no better academically so "throwing money at schools" doesn't work. Often they were right as more money went to schools with little effect. Clearly, the funds were being used in ways that did not improve learning. Money is not the answer, but wisely spent money in schools is as it can make a significant difference.

How do advertisers influence children?

Through product placement (in movies and computer games), brand licensing (a company's brand name placed on other products), viral marketing (advertising done on preexisting social networks) and guerilla marketing (selling things in unconventional and unexpected places)

How are teachers empowered?

Through site-based or school-based management and collaborative decision making

How does the federal gov influence schools?

Through the supreme court, categorical grants and block grants

What did No Child Left Behind (2011) do?

Ushered in an era of high-stakes testing that remains today.

How does the type of election used to select school board members shape the school board?

When school boards are selected through "at-large" elections, where the entire school district votes for all the members, the board is expected to represent the interest of the entire community (trustee representatives). Some districts choose board members to represent the interests of specific neighborhoods (delegate representation)

How do property taxes influence school funding?

Whether a school district will find itself rich in resources or scrambling to make ends meet depends largely on the wealth of the community being taxed. Communities with valuable real estate can easily raise funds for their schools whereas impoverished communities cannot. Urban areas struggle the most, suffering from lower property values and the need to use the limited resources to fund more police officers, hospitals, subways, and other services than their suburban counterparts. This is called municipal overburden.

What do schoolboards do?

Whether at the state or local level, they determine educational policy and their members tend to be male (more than 60%), white (more than 85%) and not young (most are 50 years of age or older). The leaders resemble those in corporate America

WHat was found in the study that assessed student success after graduation?

a 10% increase in per-pupil spending each year of elementary and secondary school for poor children was associated with a 10% increase in wages after graduation. More money invested in poor students produced adults who made a better living. Adult poverty also was seen to drop and students stayed in school longer. Overall, the research suggested money spent on improving instruction and reducing class size resulted in more effective education experience and greater income upon graduation for poorer students.

State constitutions do not guarantee that every student is entitled to either an equal education or funding, but they do guarantee

a basic education to all. Some states require every student receives an "efficient" education, others a "sound basic" education or a "thorough" education or that all schools need to be "free and uniform". These constitutional clauses are referred to as adequate education guarantees, intended to ensure all students have the basic skills they need to be effective citizens and compete in the labor market.

Other nations have a centralized funding system for schools where we have a

decentralized system.

During the past two decades the influence of local school boards has

decreased

State school boards and chief state school officers are

elected by the people, elected by the people's representatives, appointed by the governor, or are appointed by officials other than the governor

The influence of the business community in US schools can best be characterized as

extensive and growing

What is the main source of school funding?

property taxes

WHile the superintendent is the focal point of district pressures, the principal bears the brunt of?

school pressure

Examples of commercialism in school

selling advertising space on quizzes, tests and exams, scholastic magazine promoted bratz items at their book clubs and book fairs

Although states issue teacher licenses, hiring and firing of teachers is done by

the local school district, about 14,000 of them across the country.

What is accountability?

the public expects to see academic progress for their tax dollars.