Chapter 7: Meat

Tenderness of meat: Animals Age

-As muscles age, the diameter of the muscle givers increases and more connective tissue develops, resulting in toughening of the meat *young= more tender *the older they get, the more tough they become

What are the types of meat?

-Beef -Veal -Lamb and mutton (sheep) -Pork (pigs) -Baby Beef

Hormones

-Cattle and sheep, but not swine or poultry can be treated with hormones in the U.S. -to encourage rapid weight gain, help them reach the market sooner, and reduce production cost *gain more weight on less animal feed -hormone use in foods can have serious health consequences: *hormones may enter our water supply, due to feces *may affect reproduction cycle of fish *may affect human microbiomes, reproductive system, growth, weight, etc.

Effect of age on tenderness

-Collagen concentration increases as animals age *this is why meats from older animals is tougher -The tougher cuts have more flavor than the more tender ones -tougher cuts require, slow moist heating at low temperatures to convert to hydrolyze the tough connective tissue to a softer gelatin

Adipose Tissue

-Is fat -serves as insulation under the skin (subcutaneous) and as padding in the abdominal cavity for sensitive internal organs -When fat appears on the outside of the meat, it is called cover fat *helps retain moisture of meats, but is often trimmed off during preparation -Fat within muscles is called intramuscular fat or marbling -fat content will depend on: age, genetics, diet, exercise, and cut of meat

Green Meat

-Meat cooked while in a state of rigor mortis will be tough and tasteless -however, can be quite tender if prepared before stiffening begins.

Pork

-Pigs=babies, less than 4 months old -Hogs: over 4 months *what we always slaughter, typically between 7 and 12 months of age -can be both male and female

Tenderness of meat: Rigor Mortis

-Stiffness of death -the temporary stiff state following death as muscles contract -happens within 6-24 hours after slaughter -this condition will reverse naturally 1 or 2 days after slaughter -the way the meat is handled during this time can affect its pH, which influences its meat quality *this happens because the oxygen deprives cells switch to glycogen as tn energy source *glycogen is converted into lactic acid, which causes an increase in acidity *desirable pH is 7.0 to 5.8

Fat color and texture of meat

-The animals diet, age, and species will affect this -Younger animals=white -will turn progressively more yellow as an animal ages because of the presence of carotenoid pigments in the feed -adding more polyunsaturated FA in the animals diet will make its fat softer

Connective Tissue

-The glue that holds the muscle cells together -part of the ligaments and tendons -primarily of a mixture of PRO and mucoplysccarides *most abundant PRO: Collagen *2 other Main types of CT PRO: elastin and reticulin

Tenderness of meat: Diet

-The type of diet def to an animal directly influences its fat accumulation -Grass-fed beef= more tough -grain-fed beef= more tender due to having more fat

Inspection

-USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service responsibility -is a guarantee of only wholesomeness and does not ensure the quality or tenderness of the meat itself -examine live animals prior to slaughter as well as animal carcasses, observe the meat at varies processing stages, monitor temperatures and additives, review packaging materials and label's, determine employee and facility hygiene and check imported meat -Used to test for E. Coli -USDA can oversee meat in the states, as well as meats brought to the U.S. from a foreign country

Grading

-USDA contracted to grade meat -voluntary program -They take out one rib and use it to grade the whole carcass -Quality grades: the USDA standards for beef, veal, lamb,, and mutton *factors considered are: color, grain, surface, texture, and fat distribution *terms used: Prime, choice, select, standard, commercial, utility, cutter, and canner -USDA quality grades the beef reflect the degree of marbling -prime has the most marbling=most expensive

Antibiotics

-Way more are given to animals raised for meat, than are given to humans -are used to ensure health and promote faster growth -believed to contribute to antibiotic resistance *many other countries have banned the use of antibiotics in meat products

Yield Grade

-a standard representing the amount of lean meat on the carcass in proportion to fat, bone, and other inedible parts. -evaluation occurs at the slaughterhouse -rated from 1-5 1= 74% or more usable carcass meat 2= 71% usable carcass meat 3= 68% usable carcass meat 4= 64% usable carcass meat 5= 61% or less usable carcass meat

Flavor enhancements

-baked or broiled meat flavors can be enhanced by basting ans seasoning -only add salt after the meat has turned slightly browned because the salt will draw out the juices and retards browning

Moist heat preparation

-braising -simmering or stewing -steaming -microwaving (NEVER DO THIS)

Baby Beef

-calve meat that goes to the market at age 8-12 months -allowed to walk around

Thaw Rigor

-caused by freezing meat before it undergoes, rigor mortis -a phenomenon in which the meat shrinks violently by almost 50% when thawed -not sold on the consumer level

tenderness and juiciness

-cooking meats at the correct temp for the right amount of time enhances juiciness and tenderness -they become more tender when cooked because of the breakdown of fat, proteins, and connective tissues with increasing temperatures -exposure to a high heat for too long causes meat to toughen, shrink, and harden *shortens muscle fibers, denatures PROs, and causes the meat to dehydrate -any fat in meat when cooked, melts *increases tenderness, juiciness, and flavor

Touch

-doneness can be determined by the firmness of the meat -can use the side of your right hand to compare

Elastin

-elastic qualities -separates the muscles -can't soften up -cooking will not effect -yellowish, rubbery, and often reffered to as silver skin -should be removed if possible

Dark-cutting meat

-far, firm, dry conditions -bad quality -if animals are over stressed or exercised too much -REMEMBER do to little conversion of lactic acid

Tenderness of Meat: Marbling

-fattening animals before slaughter is thought to increase tenderness by increasing marbling and the development of subcutaneous fat. *amount of subcutaneous fat will determine how fast the carcass chills *more subcutaneous fat=longer it takes to chill=more tender

Slicing Meat

-go against the grain *against the muscle fibers

Pigments

-illegal to add to meat -meats color is the number-one factor influencing consumers when they are purchasing meats -color of meat is derived from mostly myoglobin and lesser extent hemoglobin *Red meats have more of these pigments than poultry or fish *the more myoglobin= the brighter red the meat -the more exercised a muscle is, the redder it will be. (due to needing more oxygen) -The older an animal is, the more red it will be

Aged Meat

-improves juiciness, tenderness, flavor, color, and ability to brown during heating -having the carcass in the fridge for longer than needed for rigor mortis *allows muscles to stretch -makes more tender!!! 3 types: dry aging, fast or wet aging, and vacuum-packed aging

Larding

-inserting strips of bacon, salt pork, or other fat into slits in the meat with a large needle *adds fat and flavor

Cold Shortening

-less severe form of than rigor -occurs when meat has been chilled too rapidly before rigor mortis sets in. -meat is tougher -not sold on consumer level

vacuum-packed aging

-less weight loss and spoilage occurs in meats that are aged by vacuum packing. -meat carcasses are divided into smaller cuts, vacuum packed in moister and vapor-proof plastic bags, and then aged under refrigeration.

PSE condition

-most commonly affects pork -it results wen the pH drops too quickly after slaughter, which causes the meat to become very dry when cooked -contains low pH -Meat can be pale, mushy, slimy, flavorless, and full or excess drip

Tenderness of meat: Cut

-muscles that are exercised are tougher than those that are not because of higher concentrations of connective tissues *neck and legs=more tough *lower back (loin) =more tender

How do you store meat?

-place in the coldest part of the fridge -32-36F -make sure its you change the wrapping out every 2 days -cook within 3-5 days for regular meats and 1-2 days for variety meats -7 days is the LONGEST!

what are the dry heat preparations you can do for meat?

-roasting -broiling and grilling -pan-frying -sauteing -pan-frying -deep-frying

Retail Cuts

-smaller cuts of meat obtained from wholesale cuts and sold to the consumer -cut from the wholesale cuts -Blade Roast, Spareribs, Loin Chops, etc

Muscles used for movement:

-such as those found in the neck, shoulders, legs, and flank, contain more collagen and tend to be tougher than muscles from the loin or lower back and rib areas, which get less exercise.

Tenderness of meats

-tenderness and flavor are the two most important factors affecting consumer acceptance of cooked beef -a top quality grade, doesn't guarantee its tenderness -natural meat tenderness is due to cut, age, and fat content -can be treated more tender by adding enzymes, salts, and acids, or by subjecting them to mechanical and electrical treatments -preparation and time also play a role

Wholesale (primal) cuts

-the large cuts of an animal carcass, which are further divided into retail cuts -whole parts on cow -Chuck, Rib, Loin, Round

Collagen

-tough and fibrous -however, turns to gel when exposed to moist meat -Needs to be cooked -supports muscle -more in muscle that is used alot *like the neck, legs, etc.

Tenderness of meat: Heredity

-vary due to genetic factors

What are meats composed of?

-water -muscle -connective tissue -adipose (fatty) tissue -often bone (proportions will vary do to the animal)

Fast or Wet Aged Meat

-when aged meat is placed in a shrink-wrap -warmer temperatures with a high humidity lower the aging time to 2 days -shipped to the consumer -how most retail meat is aged

Muscle Tissue

-where majority of PRO is found -serve as main source of meat -made up of muscle fibers *if muscle fibrils are small, the result is finer muscle bundles, which give the meat a very delicate, velvety consistency *play important roles in muscle contraction and relaxation

Freezing meats

-wrap with aluminum foil, heavy plastic or freezer paper -keep at or below 0F -most meats can be kept for 6-12 months -no longer than 3 months for ground beef *this is sue to ground beet having a high change of E. Coli *it will just pause its growth, but wont actually kill it

Veal

-young calves of beef cattle, ages 3 weeks to 3 months -either male or female -they are fed a milk-based diet or formula and have their movements greatly restricted, resulting in meat with an exceptionally milky flavor, pale color, and tender texture. -not allowed to walk around Pasture raised veal= free-range veal -more humane treatment -allowed to walk around with their mother in the pasture -not just stuck in a little hut like inhumane treatment of veal

What are the slaughterhouse conditions?

1. Dark-cutting meat 2. PSE condition 3. Thaw Rigor 4. Cold Shortening 5. Green Meat

Describe what happens when a meat changes color:

1. Myoglobin: purplish-red color -when oxygen is added (oxidized) the meat will turn bright red -when oxygen is taken away (reduced) the meat turns brownish red 2. Oxymyoglobin: bright red -when oxygen is added, the meat will turn brownish red -When oxygen is reduced, it will turn purplish red 3. Metmyoglobin: brownish-red (undesirable to retailers) -when oxygen is reduced it can be turned into either purplish-red color or bright red color

What are the types of packing meat comes in?

1. Polystyrene tray: most popular -has soaker pad under the meat and meat is wrapped in plastic -good for 5-7 days 2. fas-flushed tray -has high sides that leave space in between meat and tray 3. Vacuum packaging -helps store meats for a long time -removes oxygen and replaces with CO2 & nitrogen -allows meat to stay good for 28 days

We only eat what type of meat?

1. Steers 2. Heifers

What are the processing methods of meats?

1. curing -ham, bacon, sausages, lunchmeats -generally meats the addition of synthetic nitrates or nitrites, salt and other preservatives 2. smoking -imparts flavor, aroma, and color of foods -meat is cooked in smother with a flame and burning wood 3. canning: processed through pasteurization or sterilization 4. drying -some pepperoni, salami, beef jerky

Natural tenderizing factors:

1. cut 2. animals age 3. heredity 4. diet 5. marbling 6. rigor mortis

Name 2 dry heat cooking methods of cooking meat

1. grilling 2. sauteing

Name 2 moist heat methods of cooking meat

1. simmering 2. braising

What are the changes during heating of meat?

1. tenderness and juiciness 2. Searing 3. Flavor changes 4. Flavor enhancements -POINT OUT THAT THERE IS A LOT OF MAILLARD REACTION going on

What should meat be cooked until?

155F

What is the highest internal temperature obtainable by the moist heat method when cooking meat?

212F

State if they are tough or tender & Examples: chuck rib short loin Short Plate Sirloin Round Flank Brisket Fore Shank

All are retail cuts obtained from the primal cuts of beef chuck: Less tender, kinda tough but popular -chuck roast -ground chuck rib: Tender -Rib Eye -Rib Roast short loin: Tender -Tenderloin -T-Bone Steak Short Plate: Tough -Skirt Steak Rolls -Stew Meat Sirloin: Tender -Sirloin steak -top loin steak Round: Less tender, kinda tough but popular -ground beef -top round steak or roast Flank: Tough -Flank Steak Brisket: Tough -Brisket -corned beef ForeShank: Tough -Crosscut shank -stew meat

Beef

Beef originates from cattle that are classified according to age and sex. 1. Steers: Male cattle that are castrated while young so they will weight quickly. -they castrate also, so they will not experience high levels of testosterone because that will make the meat tough 2. Bulls: Consumers are rarely offered the tougher meat from bulls. These older uncastrated males that provide stag meat are usually used for breeding and them later for processed meats and pet foods. 3. Heifers and cows: Heifers, females that have not borne a calf, are also used for meat. The meat from cows, female cattle that have borne calves, is less desirable than that from steers or heifers. *cow meat is tough due to the high levels of hormones experienced during pregnancy. 4. Calves: calves 3-8 months old are too old for veal and too young for beef. *called baby beef

What is sweetbreads?

Brains and all the stuff around the brains

Searing

Cooking that exposes a meat cut to very high initial temperatures; this is intended to seal the pores, increase flavor, and enhance color or browning -seals the juices in

What are rocky mountain oysters?

Cow Balls

artificial Tenderizing

Enzymes: tenderizers -proteolytic enzymes work internally to break down the PRO within the muscle fibrils Salts: -retain moisture and break down the component that surrounds the muscle fibers, resulting in the release of PRO's. -increased water-retention capacity Acids: -are in marinates, which are applied to meats to make more tender and/or flavorful -break down the outside surfaces of the meat -not effective to tenderize large pieces of meat because it can only breakdown skin Mechanical Tenderization -several different methods: grinding, cubing, needling, and pounding (with meat mallet) -physically break down the muscle cells and connective tissue, making the meat easier to chew Electrical Stimulation -meat of beef cattle and sheep (but not swine), becomes more tender when a current of electricity is passes through the carcass after slaughter and before the onset rigor mortis -speeds up rigor mortis by accelerating glycogen breakdown and enzyme activity, which disrupts PRO structure, making the meat more tender.

marbling

Fat within muscles

How do farmers control the fat level of the animals?

In attempt to improve marbeling: 1. they will feed cattle richer grain during the last weeks or months before slaughter 2. give cattle certain hormones that will speed up fattening of animal -to make more learn, they will also give certain growth hormones

Lamb vs. Mutton

Lamb: -meat of sheep -come from sheep less than 14 months old -can tell the difference between lamb and mutton because lamb breaks off above the joint, whereas, mutton will break in the joint. Mutton: -Meat of sheep -comes from sheep that are over 14 months old -darker and tougher than lamb -stronger flavor than lamb **can be both male or female

What is the natural color of meat?

Purple/reddish

USDA CHOICE

Quite tender and juicy, good flavor; slightly less marbling than prime. The grade most frequently found in retail stores. -not as tender as PRIME. -Moderate marbling in delicate lacy streaks that is less evenly distributed than in PRIME

Color changes:

Rare: strong red interior. Rare meat does not reach a final internal temperature considered microbiological safe Medium: -rosy pink interior and not quite as juicy as a rare piece of meat. Well done: brown interior. No traces of red or pink left. Moist, but no longer juicy

what does everything need to go through?

Rigors Mortis

Generalize what types of meats should be cooked slowly and which types of meat should be cooked quickly:

Slowly: muscles used more (less fat collagen) Quickly: high fat meats

What is the effect of grinding meat?

Tenderizer, breaks up the muscle fibers

Natural tenderness and price are usually related. Please elaborate.

The more tender, the more it will cost -tough meat is hard to chew and has less flavor

Barding

Tying thin sheets of fat or bacon over lean meat to keep the meat moist during roasting. The sheets of fat are often removed before serving.

Who grades meat?

USDA

Who inspects meat?

USDA

If your meat has a good amount of fat, how long and what temp do you cook it at?

You increase the heat for a short amount of time

What happens if you slice with the grain?

You will cause the meat to become tough and stringy

Purchasing meats:

all based on quality and how much yield -there will be 2 numbers (EX: Prime 1 or Prime 2)

dry aging

carcasses are hung in refrigeration units at a low temperature and either high or low humidity. -seen at specially steak houses -advantage is that the dehydration concentrates the meats flavor, making it more succulent and mellow

What are the grades of mutton?

choice select commercial utility cull

Bone

contains marrow inside of the bone -a soft, fatty material in the center of most large bones *looks like gel -found as 2 different types: 1. yellow marrow, found in the long bones 2. red marrow-red because it is supplies with many blood vessels-in the spongy center of bother bones -flavorful -typically put on-top of things

What type of cooking method should you use on tough cuts of meats?

cook for long, slow, moist processes such as braising, stewing, or steaming

What type of cooking method should you use on tender cuts of meats?

dry-heat method: roasting, broiling, grilling, and frying

USDA SELECT

fairly tender; not as juicy and flavorful as Prime and Choice; has least marbling of the three, and is generally lower in price. -Spotty marbling scattered like rice grains

Extractives

flavor compounds consisting of nonprotien, nitrogen containing substances that are end products of PRO metabolism -the older the animal, the more extactives they will have *meaning the more flavor -most common are: creatinine and creatine *but uric acid, urea, and other compounds contribute to taste -Water-soluble, so can leave the meat is boiled or simmered in water

how does rigor mortis go wrong?

if the animal is stressed before going in to slaughter, they burn all of their glycogen stores and will make the meat not be able to create lactic acid -this causes a bad pH to avoid this, they try to minimize the amount of stress the animal goes through and they always keep a veterinarian on staff to evaluate the animal before slaughter

how could you cook a piece of meat that contains a lot of collagen?

increase the moisture

Inspections are _____ and grading is______

inspections= mandatory/required grading=voluntary

Does heating tenderize or Toughen meats?

it will tenderize the meat, unless it is overcooked (which will toughen it)

How to meat tenderizers work?

meat tenderizers contain enzymes that break down muscle PROs. They are sprinkled on meat, which is then pierces with a fork to drive the enzymes below the surface, where they hydrolyze muscle cell PRO's and connective tissue when activated by the heat or preparation

What is the desirable pH of meat? Why?

pH of 5.8 because it improves meat quality and tenderness it typically is 7, so it needs to become more acidic during rigors mortis

What are the pork retail cuts?

pork is usually tender 1. Shoulder butt 2. Picnic shoulder 3. Loin 4. Side 5. Leg

What are the grades of lamb?

prime choice select commercial utility cull

what are the grades of veal?

prime choice select standard commercial utility cull

What are the grades of beef?

prime choice select standard commercial utility cutter canner

Why is it safe to consume rate steaks but nor rare hamburgers?

rare steaks are intact muscles and thus are sterile on the inside unless they have been pierced for some reason -heating kills the surface bacteria, which is why steaks can be eaten rare Ground meat, has had its surface tissue literally ground into its interior, so i must be sufficiency heated to kill ant possible pathogens locate in the center

What is oxtail?

tail

For best results when preparing frozen meats:

thaw thoroughly in the refrigerator or microwave before cooking

Internal Temperatures of meats?

the USDA says they should be allowed to reach at least 145F and let to rest for 3 minutes

carryover cooking

the phenomenon in which food continues to cook after it has been removed from the heat source as heat is distributed more evenly from the outer to the inner portion of the food

Cuts high in connective tissues are naturally:

tough and need to be properly prepared using techniques to increase tenderness

USDA Canner

typically ground beef, its found in things such as chef boy-rd

USDA PRIME

very tender, juicy; flavorful; the greatest degree of marbling. The most expensive of the grades, Prime is sold to finer restaurants and some meat stores -very heavy marbling that looks like snowflakes and is evenly distributed

Why is marbling desirable in meat?

when meat is cooked, the intramuscular fat deposits melt and contribute to perceived flavor and juiciness.. For this reason, the more marbling in a cut of beef, the higher the grade.

do you add or decease the amount of moisture when cooking a roast?

you add moisture

How do you cook a piece of meat that has a low amount of fat?

you cook low and slow -a roast for example