CHAPTER 7: MEMORY ENCODING
What improves memory encoding?
1. Elaborative Rehearsal: Definition: A method of memorizing new information by creating meaningful associations between the information and existing knowledge. Example: To remember the word "neuron," you might create a story or image in your mind that connects the word to something familiar, like "A new 'ron' (a character from a TV show) is thinking very hard, activating all of his neurons." 2. Chunking: Definition: Organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically. Example: Memorizing a phone number by breaking it down into chunks (e.g., 123-456-7890 becomes 123, 456, 7890). 3. Visual Imagery: Definition: Creating a mental image to represent the information to be remembered. Example: To remember a grocery list, visualize each item in a specific location in your house. 4. Mnemonics: Definition: Memory aids, especially techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices. Example: Using the acronym HOMES to remember the names of the Great Lakes (Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior). 5. Distributed Practice: Definition: Spreading out study sessions over time rather than cramming. Example: Studying for an exam over several weeks instead of the night before. 6. Self-Testing: Definition: Testing oneself on the material to be learned, also known as retrieval practice. Example: Creating flashcards for key terms and quizzing yourself on them. 7. Making Material Personally Meaningful: Definition: Relating the material to your own life or experiences. Example: Connecting historical events to your own life stories or personal experiences.
Levels of processing framework
1. Shallow Processing: Definition: Involves processing information based on its surface characteristics. Example: Reading a word and noticing only its font type or the color of the ink. 2. Intermediate Processing: Definition: Involves processing information at a deeper level than shallow processing, focusing on the sound and structure of the information. Example: Reading a word and focusing on how it rhymes with another word. 3. Deep Processing: Definition: Involves the semantic processing of information, where the meaning is extracted and associations are made with existing memory. Example: Reading a word and thinking about its meaning, its synonyms, and how it can be used in a sentence. 4. Self-Referential Processing: Definition: A specific type of deep processing where information is related to the self, making it more memorable. Example: Reading a statement and considering how it applies to your own life or experiences. 5. Elaborative Rehearsal: Definition: A method of memorizing information by relating it to information already stored in long-term memory. Example: Learning a new concept in psychology by connecting it to a concept you already understand. 6. Maintenance Rehearsal: Definition: A method of memorizing information through repetition, without creating meaningful connections to other information. Example: Repeating a phone number over and over again to remember it temporarily.
When does repetition help memory?
Definition of Repetition in Memory: Repetition is a cognitive process in which information is reviewed multiple times to strengthen the memory trace and enhance the likelihood of recall. It is a fundamental component of memory consolidation. Example: If a student reads their notes repeatedly before an exam, the repetition can help strengthen their memory of the material, making it easier for them to recall the information during the test. Spacing Effect: This is the phenomenon where spaced repetitions of material over time lead to more effective memory retention compared to massed repetitions (cramming). Example: If a person studies a set of flashcards for 10 minutes each day over a week, they are likely to remember the information better than if they studied the flashcards for 70 minutes in a single session. Active Recall: This involves actively trying to remember information without looking at the material, which can be more effective than passive repetition. Example: After reading a textbook chapter, a student closes the book and tries to write down everything they can remember from the chapter, actively recalling the information. Desirable Difficulty: This concept suggests that memory is enhanced when the learning task is challenging but achievable, which can be facilitated by varying the types of repetition and introducing spaced repetitions. Example: Instead of just re-reading their notes, a student might create flashcards with questions on one side and answers on the back, challenging themselves to recall the answers without looking. Elaborative Rehearsal: This involves connecting new information to existing knowledge and creating meaningful associations, which can be more effective for long-term retention than rote repetition. Example: To remember the term "neuron," a student might create a story or mnemonic that links the term to something they are already familiar with, such as "A 'new Ron' in my brain sends signals."
Schema
Definition: A schema is a mental structure that represents some aspect of the world. It is an organized pattern of thought or behavior that organizes categories of information and the relationships among them. Schemas can be used to help us predict how things work in the world based on past experiences. Example: Imagine you have a schema for a restaurant. This schema helps you know what to expect when you go out to eat. It includes knowledge about the sequence of events (e.g., being seated, looking at the menu, ordering food, eating, paying the bill), the roles of different people (e.g., host, server, chef), and typical objects found in that setting (e.g., tables, chairs, dishes, menus). When you enter a new restaurant, you automatically activate this schema and it helps you navigate the experience, even though you've never been to this particular place before.
Script
Definition: A script in cognitive psychology refers to a pre-stored, stereotyped sequence of events that is expected to happen in a particular context. It is a type of schema that helps individuals predict what will happen next in a familiar situation, guiding behavior and thought processes. Example: Consider going to a restaurant. Most people have a script for this situation: Enter the restaurant. Wait to be seated (or choose a seat if it's a casual place). Look at the menu and decide what to order. A waiter takes your order. Wait for the food to arrive. Eat the food. Ask for the bill. Pay and leave a tip. Leave the restaurant. In this example, the script helps streamline the process, as individuals generally know what to expect and how to behave at each step.
Deep processing
Definition: Deep processing is a term used in cognitive psychology to describe the process of attentively analyzing information in terms of its meaning, significance, or relevance, which leads to better and more lasting memory retention compared to shallow processing. It often involves making connections to existing knowledge, understanding the implications of the information, and elaborating on the details. Example: Imagine you are trying to memorize a list of words for a test. If you engage in deep processing, you might take each word and create a meaningful sentence with it, relate it to a personal experience, or visualize a scenario in which the word is used. For instance, for the word "serendipity," you could remember it by recalling a personal story where you found something valuable by chance, which is the meaning of the word. This active engagement with the material on a meaningful level facilitates better memory retention compared to simply repeating the words over and over again (shallow processing).
What conditions support deeper processing rather than shallow processing?
Definition: Deeper processing refers to a more meaningful analysis of information, which leads to better memory retention compared to shallow processing. It involves elaborative rehearsal, self-reference, and making connections to existing knowledge. Conditions Supporting Deeper Processing: Elaborative Rehearsal: Engaging with the material in a meaningful way, such as by creating associations or building upon existing knowledge. Example: Instead of simply repeating a term to remember it, creating a story or a sentence that includes the term and relates it to something you already know. Self-Reference: Relating the material to oneself or one's own experiences. Example: When learning a new psychological concept, thinking about how it applies to your own life or experiences. Making Connections: Linking new information to existing knowledge. Example: When learning about a new theory, connecting it to similar theories or concepts that you are already familiar with. Use of Imagery: Creating mental pictures to represent the information. Example: To remember a list of items, visualizing them in a specific location or as part of a vivid story. Distributed Practice: Spreading out learning sessions over time rather than cramming. Example: Studying a little bit each day in the weeks leading up to an exam instead of trying to learn everything the night before. Active Engagement: Actively participating in the learning process rather than passively receiving information. Example: Engaging in discussions, asking questions, or teaching the material to someone else.
Depth of processing
Definition: Depth of Processing is a cognitive psychology theory that suggests the depth at which information is processed during learning determines how well it is retained in memory. Deeper processing involves semantic encoding and leads to better recall, while shallow processing involves more superficial encoding and results in poorer recall. Example: If you are trying to memorize a list of words, you could use shallow processing by simply repeating the words over and over (rote memorization). Alternatively, you could use deep processing by creating a meaningful sentence or story that incorporates all of the words, making it more likely that you will remember them later.
Encoding
Definition: Encoding is the initial process of converting sensory input into a form that can be stored and used later in memory. It is the first stage of memory, where information is transformed into a mental representation. Example: Imagine you are introduced to a new colleague, and they tell you their name. The process of encoding occurs when you pay attention to their name, transforming the auditory information into a mental representation that can be stored in your short-term memory. Later on, you might rehearse this information to transfer it to your long-term memory.
How does emotion affect encoding?
Definition: Encoding refers to the process by which information is initially recorded in a form usable to memory. Emotional encoding is when the emotional content of an event or information enhances memory encoding processes, leading to stronger and more durable memories. Example: Imagine you are on a roller coaster. The intense emotions you feel during the ride—fear, excitement, joy—are likely to enhance the encoding of the memory of this event. As a result, you might remember this experience more vividly and for a longer time compared to a less emotionally charged event.
Flashbulb Memories
Definition: Flashbulb memories are highly detailed, exceptionally vivid 'snapshots' of the moment and circumstances in which a piece of surprising and consequential (or emotionally arousing) news was heard. They are a type of autobiographical memory. Example: Many people who were alive during the assassination of President John F. Kennedy in 1963, or during the September 11 attacks in 2001, can vividly recall where they were, what they were doing, and who they were with when they heard the news. These vivid recollections are examples of flashbulb memories.
How are flashbulb memories different from other memories? How are they similar?
Definition: Flashbulb memories are highly detailed, exceptionally vivid 'snapshots' of the moment and circumstances in which a piece of surprising and consequential (or emotionally arousing) news was heard. They are believed to be highly resistant to forgetting. Example: Remembering exactly where you were, what you were doing, and who you were with when you heard about a major historical event, like the 9/11 attacks. Differences from Other Memories: Vividness and Detail: Flashbulb memories tend to be more vivid and detailed than other types of memories. Emotional Intensity: They are often linked to events that are highly emotional, whereas other memories might not have such a strong emotional component. Confidence in Accuracy: People tend to be very confident in the accuracy of their flashbulb memories, even though research shows that these memories can be just as prone to distortion and decay as other types of memories. Similarities to Other Memories: Formation and Retrieval: Like other memories, flashbulb memories are encoded, stored, and retrieved in the brain. Susceptibility to Error: Despite their vividness and the confidence people have in them, flashbulb memories can still be inaccurate or prone to distortion, similar to other types of memories. Subject to Change: Over time, flashbulb memories can change and evolve, just like other memories.
Default value
Definition: In cognitive psychology, the concept of "default value" typically refers to the initial setting or typical response that an individual's cognitive system resorts to in the absence of specific inputs or when faced with uncertainty. This can pertain to perceptual interpretations, decision-making processes, or memory retrieval, where the brain fills in gaps or makes assumptions based on prior experience or knowledge. Example: A common example of default value can be observed in the perception of ambiguous figures, such as the Necker Cube—a two-dimensional image that can be perceived as a three-dimensional cube in two different orientations. When an individual looks at the Necker Cube, their perception might initially default to one of the two possible three-dimensional orientations, often influenced by prior experiences or individual perceptual biases. However, with sustained attention, the individual may become aware of the ambiguity and be able to voluntarily switch their perception between the two interpretations.
What doesn't improve memory encoding?
Definition: Memory encoding is a process in which information is transformed into a form that can be stored in memory. However, not all methods of encoding are equally effective. Research in cognitive psychology has identified several factors that do not improve, or may even impair, memory encoding. Example of a non-beneficial practice: Shallow Processing - This occurs when one encodes information based only on its surface characteristics, rather than its deeper meaning. For example, trying to memorize a list of words by focusing on their font type or the sound of the words, rather than their meaning, tends to result in poorer memory retention compared to deeper, semantic processing.
What effect does prior knowledge have on memory encoding?
Definition: Prior knowledge refers to the information that an individual already possesses before learning new material. It plays a crucial role in memory encoding, which is the initial learning of information. Prior knowledge can facilitate or hinder the encoding of new information depending on its relevance and accuracy. Example: Consider learning about the topic of classical conditioning in psychology. If a student already has prior knowledge of related concepts, such as stimulus-response relationships from prior courses or personal reading, this pre-existing knowledge can help in quicker and more efficient encoding of the new material on classical conditioning. The student is able to relate the new information to existing cognitive schemas, creating stronger memory traces. Conversely, if a student has misconceptions or inaccurate prior knowledge about the topic, it can lead to the encoding of incorrect information or create barriers to understanding the new material properly. For example, if a student wrongly believes that classical conditioning always leads to permanent behavioral changes, they may have difficulty grasping the concept of extinction in classical conditioning, where the conditioned response decreases or disappears after the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented alone.
How does prior knowledge affect encoding?
Definition: Prior knowledge, also known as schema or background knowledge, plays a crucial role in the encoding process of memory. Encoding refers to the initial learning of information. Prior knowledge helps in organizing new information, making it more meaningful and easier to remember. It acts as a framework for new information to be added, enabling faster and more efficient encoding. Example: Imagine trying to learn about the process of photosynthesis without any prior knowledge of biology, plants, or cellular processes. The terms and concepts would seem abstract and challenging to grasp. However, if you already have background knowledge in biology and understand the basic functions of a plant cell, you can relate the new information about photosynthesis to your existing knowledge, making it easier to encode and subsequently remember.
What is the difference between intentional and incidental memory tests?
Intentional Memory Test: In intentional memory tests, participants are explicitly instructed to remember information for a later test. They are aware that their memory will be tested, and this awareness influences how they encode and store the information. Example: A study participant is given a list of words and told to memorize them because they will be asked to recall as many words as possible from the list after a period of time. Incidental Memory Test: In incidental memory tests, participants are not told in advance that their memory will be tested. They encounter the information in the course of some other task, and their memory for the information is tested later, often unexpectedly. Example: A participant is asked to read a list of words and rate how pleasant each word is. Later, without prior warning, they are asked to recall or recognize the words from the list. The initial task did not explicitly require them to remember the words for a later test.
How does prior knowledge affect encoding?
Prior knowledge significantly influences the encoding process in memory, enhancing the ability to retain and understand new information. It provides a framework or schema that helps in organizing and interpreting incoming data, making the encoding more efficient and meaningful. Definition: Encoding is the process of transforming sensory input into a form that can be stored and recalled later from memory. How Prior Knowledge Affects Encoding: Facilitates Better Understanding: Prior knowledge helps in making sense of new information. For example, if you are already familiar with basic concepts of physics, learning advanced topics becomes easier because you can relate new information to what you already know. Enhances Memory Retention: Information that connects to an existing knowledge base is more likely to be encoded into long-term memory. For instance, if you're learning a new language and come across a word similar to a word in a language you already know, you're more likely to remember it. Improves Recall: Prior knowledge not only helps in encoding information but also aids in retrieving it when needed. A student with a strong grasp of historical events, for example, can more readily encode and recall details about a new historical period they are learning about. Example: A student who has a good understanding of world geography is likely to find it easier to encode and retain information about a new country they are learning about in class, as they can connect the new knowledge to their existing mental map of world geography.
Survival Processing
Survival Processing is a cognitive psychology concept that refers to the enhanced memory retention of information when it is processed with a survival-related context. The idea is that our brains have evolved to prioritize and better remember information that could be crucial for survival. Example: In a classic study by Nairne and colleagues (2007), participants were asked to rate words based on their relevance to a survival scenario (stranded in the grasslands without basic survival materials) or a moving scenario. Later, they were tested on their memory of these words. The study found that participants had significantly better recall of the words they had rated in the survival scenario, demonstrating the survival processing advantage.
