Chapter 8 (book & powerpoint) Cognitive

Of the 45 people who responded to this question "Have you seen the paparazzi's video-recording of the car crash in which Diana, Princess of Wales, and Dodi Fayed lost their lives?", _____ said they had seen the film. This was, however, impossible, because no such film exists. Question 32 options:

20

When subjects indicated when each "I am" statement had become a significant part of their identity, the average age they assigned t the origin of these statements was _____, which is within the span of the ___________.

25; reminisence bump

As of 2012, the use of DNA evidence had exonerated ______ people in the US who had been wrongly convicted of crimes and served an average of ___ years in prison. _________ percent of these convictions involved eyewitness testimony.

341; 13; 75

In one experiment, telling subjects that the perpetrator may not be present in a lineup caused a _____ percent decrease in false identifications of innocent people.

42

Right after the explosion, only 21 percent of the subjects indicated that they had first heard about it on TV, but 2.5 years later, ____ percent of the subjects reported that they had first heard about it on TV. Reasons for the increase in TV memories could be that the TV reports become more memorable through repetition and that TV is a major source of news.

45 %

Flashbulb memory is best represented by which of the following statements?

It is memory for the circumstances surrounding how a person heard about an emotional event that remains especially vivid but not necessarily accurate over time.

In Chapter 6, we defined ________________ as memory for specific experiences from our life, which can include both episodic and semantic components.

Autobiographical Memory

When sentence A, The flimsy shelf weakened under the weight of the books. is followed by sentence B, The flimsy shelf ________ under the weight of the books. People often fill in the blank with "collapsed". This demonstrates that ____________.

Memory is reconstructed based on previous / typical language usage

Which of the following is NOT a correct description of the results from eyewitness-testimony experiments?

NOT eyewitness tends to pick a familiar face from the lineup as a perpatraotr

Cognitive hypothesis proposes that _____________________________.

Periods of rapid change that are followed by stability causes stronger encoding of memories.

Which of the following is NOT a correct description of the three explanations for the reminiscence bump?

Self-image hypothesis: memory is enhanced for events that had occurred as a person was forming self-identity. Cognitive hypothesis: busy period of life that is followed by a relaxed and stable period of life causes stronger memory about the relaxed period. Cultural life script: personal events become easier to recall when they fit the schedule expected by one's culture. All of the above are correct

Transition points in people's lives appear to be particularly memorable. This is illustrated by what Wellesley College juniors and seniors said when they were asked to recall the most influential event from their freshmen year. Most of the responses to this question were descriptions of events that had occurred in ___________. When alumni were asked the same question, they remembered more events from ___________ of their freshman year and from the end of their senior year - another transition point.

September

People often make source monitoring errors and believe that they learned about the flashbulb-memory-events from the TV even though that was not how they had learned the news.

Which of the following is not a correct description of the flashbulb memory

The idea behind repeated recall is to determine whether memory changes over time by testing subjects ___________ after an event.

a number of times

Many innocent people may be currently serving time for crimes they didn't commit. Many of these miscarriages of justice and others, some of which will undoubtedly never be discovered, are based on the assumption, made by jurors and judges, that people see and report things ____________.

accuratley

For most adults over age 40, the reminiscence bump describes enhanced memory for ________.

adolescence and young adulthood

Brain scans using fMRI as people were remembering revealed that __________ activity was higher for the emotional words

amygdala

The brain area that is responsible for detecting negative emotional stimuli is ______.

amygdala

One way the cognitive hypothesis has been tested is by finding people who have experienced rapid changes in their lives that occurred __________ adolescence or young adulthood. The cognitive hypothesis would predict that the reminiscence bump should occur later for these people.

at a later time than

Paradoxically, the danger of suggestion influencing memory may be increased if it happens when or just after the witness is remembering what happened. This possibility was suited by Jason Chan and coworkers (2009), ... Thus, ________, which brought back memories for the original event, made subjects more likely to be influenced by the misinformation.

being tested

Recommendation 4: use a "_______" lineup administrator and get an ___________ confidence rating

blind; immediate

According to the YouTube video regarding eyewitness, the officer selectively used two critical words in his question. There were:

bump;smash

It is important to emphasize that the term flashbulb memory refers to memory for the _________________

circumstances surrounding how a person heard about an event, not memory for the event itself.

Cognitive psychologists have developed an interview procedure called the _________ interview, which is based on what is known about memory retrieval. This interview procedure, which has been described as "perhaps one of the most successful developments in psychology and law research in the last 25 years."

cognitive

Schrauf and Rubin's (1998) "two groups of immigrants" study found that the reminiscence bump coincided with periods of rapid change, occurring at a normal age for people emigrating early in life but shifting to 15 years later for those who emigrated later. These results support the __________.

cognitive hypothesis

The problem with the procedure used by Brown and Kulik who surveyed people's memory about highly emotional events is that there was no way to determine whether the reported memories were accurate. The only way to check for accuracy is to compare the person's memory to what actually happened or to memory reports collected immediately after the event. The technique of _____________________ after the event is called repeated recall.

comparing later memories to memories collected immediately after the event.

Larry Cahill and coworkers (2003) showed subjects neutral and emotionally arousing pictures; then they had some subjects (the stress group) immerse their arms in ice water, which causes the release of __________, and other subjects (the no-stress group) immerse their arms in warm water, which is a non-stressful situation that doesn't cause __________ release (a stress-related hormone).

cortisol

Bartlett's experiment in which English participants were asked to recall the "War of the Ghosts" story that was based on Canadian Indian culture demonstrated the constructive nature of memory. Specifically, it demonstrated that memory is altered based on one's ___________.

cultural background

The cultural life script hypothesis distinguishes between a person's life story, which is all of the events that have occurred in a person's life, and a _____________, which is the culturally expected events that occur at a particular time in the life span.

cultural life script

But when the perpetrator was not in the lineup, increasing similarity caused a large __________ in incorrect identification of an innocent person.

decrease

When the perpetrator was in the lineup, increasing similarity did __________ identification of the perpetrator. Question 25 options:

decrease

When subjects also listed events that were connected with each "I am" statement, most of the events occurred during the time span associated with the reminiscence bump. ______________ therefore brings with it numerous memorable events, most of which happen during adolescence or young adulthood.

development of the self-image

According to cognitive psychologists, it is better to have an administrator of the lineup procedure who _________ know whether or not the lineup has a real suspect/perpetrator while letting the eyewitness know that there _________ be the suspect.

does not; may not

In one experiment on the association between emotion and enhanced memory, Kevin LaBar and Elizabeth Phelps (1998) tested subjects' ability to recall arousing words and neutral words, and observed better memory for the ___________ words. In another study, Florin Dolcos and coworkers (2005) tested subjects' ability to recognize emotional and neutral pictures after a 1-year delay and observed better memory for the _________ pictures.

emotional (arousing)

The results in Figure 8.9, indicate that subjects were more likely to say they remembered ___________ pictures than _____________ pictures.

emotional (negative); neutral

( Subjects gave stronger remember response and higher confidence to the emotional pictures.) ... Subjects were less likely to correctly name the color of the frame surrounding the __________ pictures they remembered. Results such as these have led researchers to conclude that _________ enhance our ability to remember that an event occurred and some of its general characteristics, but do not enhance our memory for details of what happened.

emotional; emotions

What is particularly interesting about the result of Larry Cahill and coworkers (2003) is that the cortisol enhances memory for the ____________ but not for the __________ pictures.

emotional; neutral

In one study, subjects viewed a security videotape in which a gunman was in view for 8 seconds and then were asked to pick the gunman from photographs. ________ subject(s) picked someone they thought was the gunman, even though his picture was not included in the photo spread. In another study, using a similar experimental design, _____________ subject(s) picked someone from a photo spread, even though the perpetrator's picture wasn't included.

every; 61 percent of the

In Ross et al. (1994), subjects in the experimental group saw a film of a male teacher reading to students; subjects in the control group saw a film of a female teacher reading to students. Subjects in both groups then saw a film of the female teacher being robbed and were asked to pick the robber from a photo spread. The photographs did not include the actual robber, but did include the male teacher, who resembled the robber. The results indicate that subjects in the ___________ group were three times more likely to pick the male teacher than were subjects in the ___________ group.

experimental; control

A lesson to be learned from the research on flashbulb memories is that _________.

extreme vividness of a memory does not mean it is highly accurate

Subjects, who as college students were far removed from these childhood experiences, were given some of the information from the parents' descriptions and were told to elaborate on them. They were also given some of the information from the false events and were told to elaborate on them as well. The results was that the subjects "recalled" and described in some detail 20 percent of the ________ events.

false

In one case of mistaken identification, a ticket agent at a railway station was robbed and subsequently identified a sailor as being the robber. Luckily for the sailor, he was able to show that he was somewhere else at the time of the crime. When asked why he identified the sailor, the ticket agent said that he looked ___________.

familiar

Wells and Bradfield call this increase in confidence due to confirming feedback after making an identification the post-identification ___________ effect.

feedback

Recommendation 2: When constructing a lineup, use "_______" who are similar to the suspect.

fillers

According to the cultural life script hypothesis, events in a person's life story becomes easier to recall when they ____________ the cultural life script for the person's culture.

fit

In referring to the day of President Kennedy's assassination, Brown and Kulik stated that "for an instant, the entire nation and perhaps much of the world stopped still to have its picture taken." This description, which likened the process of forming a memory to the taking of a photograph, led them to coin the term ________________ to refer to a person's memory for the circumstances surrounding shocking, highly charged events.

flashbulb memory

However, another result, shown in Figure 8.8b, did indicate a difference between flashbulb and everyday memories: People's belief that their memories were accurate stayed high over the entire 32-week period for the _________ memories but dropped for the _________ memories.

flashbulb; everyday

Extrapolating from the cultural life script hypothesis, which of the following events would be easiest to recall?

graduating from college at age 23

Having witness immediate rate their confidence in their choice eliminates the possibility that the post event feedback effect could ________ their confidence.

increase

We will now see that information presented by others can also _________ a person's memory for past events.

influence

To test the cognitive hypothesis, Robert Schrauf and David Rubin (1998) determined the recollections of people who had emigrated to the United States either in their 20s or in their mid 30s. Figure 8.4, which shows the memory curves for two groups of immigrants, indicates that the reminiscence bmp occurs at the normal age for people who emigrated at age 20-24 but is shifted to _________ for those who emigrated at age 34-35, just as the cognitive hypothesis would predict.

later

One result of this experiment about flashbulb and everyday memories was that subjects remembered fewer details and made more errors at longer intervals after the events, with ______ difference between the results for the flashbulb and everyday memories. This result supports the idea that there is nothing special about flashbulb memories.

little

A better way of presenting the task (pointing the perpetrator from a lineup) is to let the witness know that the crime suspect ___________ be in the lineup.

may or may not

Lineups are notaries for producing mistaken identifications. Here are some of the recommendations that have been made: Recommendation 1: When asking a witness to pick the perpetrator from a lineup, inform the witness that the perpetrator ___________ be in the particular lineup he or she is viewing.

may or may not be

What is a flashbulb memory?

memory for circumstances surrounding shocking or highly charged important events

The observation that older adults often become nostalgic for the "good old days" reflects the self-image hypothesis, which states that _________.

memory for life events is enhanced during the time we assume our life identities

Cognitive interview involves letting the witness talk with a _________ of interruption and also uses techniques that help witness recreate the situation present at the crime scene by ___________ and recreate things like emotions they were felling, where they were looking, and how the scene might have appeared when viewed from different perspectives.

minimum; having them place themselves back in the scene

According to the experiment that involves emotional and neutral picture surrounded by color frames, people are ______ confident to recognize emotional pictures than to recognize neutral pictures, but their memory for the frame color is ________ accurate for the emotional pictures.

more; less

Claudia Stanny and Thomas Johnson (2000) determined how well subjects remembered details of a filmed simulated crime. They found that subjects were more likely to recall details of the perpetrator, the victim, and the weapon in the "_________" condition than in the "_________" condition. Apparently, the presence of a weapon that was fired distracted attention from other things that were happening.

no shoot; shoot

In 2011, the New Jersey Supreme Court mandated that judges inform jurors about the scientific finding regarding eyewitness testimony by including instructions to the jury such as "Human memory is _________. Research has shown that human memory ___________________ that witness need only replay to remember what happened."

not foolproof; is not at all like a video recording

In this classic study, Bartlett first had his subjects read the story from Canadian Indian Folklore. After his subjects had read this story, Bartlett asked them to recall it as accurately as possible. ...At longer times after reading the story, most subjects' reproductions of the story were shorter than the original and contained many omissions and inaccuracies. But what was most significant about the remembered stories is that they tended to reflect the subject's ________.

own culture

Which of the following is NOT a correct description of the effect of emotion on memory?

people are less confident with remembering emotional events

As a supporting evidence of the cognitive hypothesis of the reminiscence bump, researchers found that people who immigrated at the age of 34-35 show a reminiscence bump that is ______.

postponed compared to those of people who immigrated at the age of 20-24

The fact that memories become more susceptible to suggestion during ___________ means that every precaution needs to be taken to avoid making suggestions to the witness.

questioning

The problem with the simultaneous presentation is that it increases the chances that the witness will make a _________ judgment - comparing people in the lineup to each other, so the question is "Who is most like the person I saw?" However, when each person in the lineup is presented sequentially - one at a time - then the witness compares each person not to the other person, but to the _______________.

relative; memory of what the witness saw

The acceptance of eyewitness testimony is based on two assumptions: (1) the eyewitness was able to clearly see what happened; and (2) the eyewitness was able to __________ his or her observations and translate them into an accurate description of what happened and an accurate identification of the perpetrator(s).

remember

The enhanced memory for adolescence and young adulthood found in people over 40 is called the _______________. Question 3 options:

reminiscence bump

When Dorthe Bernsten and David Rubin (2004) asked people to list when important events in a typical person's life usually occur...... Interestingly, a large number of the most commonly mentioned events occur during the period associated with the ________________.

reminiscence bump

To measure the accuracy of flashbulb memories, researchers use ________ procedure.

repeated recall

_____ is your knowledge about what's the typical image of a place, which _____ your memory.

scene schema

In the experiment in which participants sat in a psychology-experiment office and then were asked to remember what they saw in the office, participants "remembered" things, like books, that weren't actually there. This experiment illustrates the effect of on memory.

scene schemas

A ________ is a person's knowledge about some aspect of the environment.

schema

In an experiment that studied how memory is influenced by people's _________, subjects who had come to participate in a psychology experiment were asked to wait in an office ... their task was to write down what they had seen while they were sitting in the office.

schemas

The ______________ hypothesis, proposed by Clare Rathbone and coworkers (2008), proposes that memory is enhanced for events that occur as a person's ____________ or life identity is being formed.

self-image

which of the following effect is most closely related to the cognitive hypothesis of reminiscence bump

self-reference effect

Recommendation 3: When presenting a lineup, use ___________ rather than ___________ presentation.

sequential; simultaneous

According to cognitive psychologists, it is better to have ________ lineup and ________ in the lineup.

serial; fillers

Lindsay and Wells (1985) found that for lineups in which the perpetrator was not present, an innocent person was falsely identified 43 percent of the time in the ___________ lineup, but only 17 percent of the time in the ____________ lineup.

simultaneous; sequential

Many states, including New Jersey, Ohio, California, North Carolina, and Wisconsin, have switched from ____________ to ___________ lineups.

simultaneous; sequential

Loftus and Steven Palmer (1974) showed subjects films of a car crash (Figure 8.14) and then asked either (1) "how fast were the cars going when they _____________ each other?" or (2) "How fast were the cars going when they ________ each other?"

smashed into; hit

Although both groups saw the same event, the average speed estimated by subjects who heard the word __________" was 41 miles per hour, whereas the estimates for subjects who heard "_______" averaged 34 miles per hour.

smashed; hit

Even more interesting for the study of memory are the subjects' responses to the question "Did you see any broken glass?" which Loftus asked 1 week after they had seen the film. Although there was no broken glass in the film, 32 percent of the subjects who heard "________" before estimating the speed reported seeing broken glass, whereas only 14 percent of the subjects who heard "________" reported seeing the glass.

smashed; hit

Why are adolescence and young adulthood special times for encoding memories? We will describe three hypotheses, all based on the idea that _____________events are happening during adolescence and young adulthood.

special life events

At the trial, Elizabeth Loftus and other cognitive psychologists described research on the misinformation effect and implanting false memories to demonstrate how __________ can create false memory for long ago events that never actually happened.

suggestion

Although researchers are still discussing the mechanism of mechanisms that cause the misinformation effect, there is no doubt that the effect is real and that experimenter's _____________can influence subjects' reports in memory experiments.

suggestions

An important feature of the cognitive interview technique is that it decreases the likelihood of any __________ input by the person conducting the interview.

suggestive

According to the cognitive interview technique, we should let eyewitness _____________.

talk with minimal interuption/feedback & recreate the situation/emotion they had at the crime scene

Thus, the idea that flashbulb memories are special appears to be based at least partly on the fact that people ____________ the flashbulb memories are stronger and more accurate; however, this study found that in reality there is _________ difference between flashbulb and everyday memories in terms of the amount of accuracy of what is remembered.

think the flashbulb memories are stronger; little or no

In fact, one of the main findings of research on flashbulb memories is that although people report that memories surrounding flashbulb events are especially ______, they are often __________.

vivid; inaccurate or lacking in detail

The link between emotions and the amygdala was also demonstrated by testing a patient, B.P., who suffered damage to his amygdala. ... B.P.'s memory was the same as that of the non-brain damaged subjects for the first part of the story, but it ________ for the emotional part. It appears, therefore, that emotions may trigger mechanisms in the amygdala that help us remember events that are associated with the emotions.

was not

Although there is evidence linking emotion to better memory, there is also evidence that under certain conditions, emotions can impair memory. For example, emotions can sometimes cause a focusing of attention on objects that are particularly important, drawing attention away from other objects and so decreasing memory for those objects (Mather & Sutherland, 2011). An example of this is a phenomenon called __________, the tendency to focus attention on a weapon during the commission of a crime. Question 19 options:

weapon focus

Subjects in Neisser and Harsch's experiment filled out a questionnaire within a day after the explosion of the space shuttle Challenger, and then filled out the same questionnaire 2.5 to 3 ______ later.

years