Chapter 9

Andrew Jackson

was a Congressman from Tennessee who strongly supported the War of 1812. During the war, Jackson served as a general of the US Army, and won the most famous battle of the war, the Battle of New Orleans. At New Orleans in 1815, Jackson defeated a much larger British force, marking the last major battle of the war. In fact, the Battle of New Orleans, America's greatest victory in the entire war, took place one month after the war was over (the combatants hadn't heard that it was over)! This win gave the United States a stronger bargaining position at the peace settlement. Jackson was also famous during this time period for killing Indians, including defeating the Creeks at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend in 1814, and invading Florida to attack the Seminoles in 1817.

Tecumseh

was a leader of the Indian tribe called the Shawnees. He grew up in Ohio and constantly saw war. His brother was Tenskwatawa (sorry!). Tecumseh is known for confronting William Henry Harrison about the U.S. repealing land purchase treaties. He is also known for traveling across America to unite the tribes against fighting. Before he left, he warned his brother of violence. This warning was ignored. The Battle of Tippecanoe was the cause of his brother's death and mass destruction for the Shawnees.

William Henry Harrison

was a military official, politician, and the first president to die in office (in 1841). Before his presidency, Harrison fought in the Battle of Thames and the Battle of Tippecanoe. So, like Andrew Jackson who also became President later on, Harrison gained fame for slaughtering Indians.

Non-Importation Act of 1806

was an act passed Congress which forbade the importation of certain British goods in an attempt to convince Britain to suspend its impressment of American sailors and to respect American sovereignty and neutrality on the high seas. This was the first attempt Jefferson's administration to respond economically, instead of militarily, to the British actions. The Act failed and was replaced by the Embargo Act of 1807.

Embargo Act (1807

when Britain and France were both trying to gain control over Europe, each country tried to use America to their advantage. Thomas Jefferson signed this bill to help the US remain neutral. It stopped American trade with all foreign countries! The idea was that we would not get drawn into a war if we didn't trade with anyone. Instead, it destroyed the American economy, as ships rotten at the wharves and industry and agriculture lost almost all of its markets. It was also very ineffective at its main purpose, and was repealed in 1809.

Adams-Onis Treaty

AKA Transcontinental Treaty of 1819. Andrew Jackson defiantly attacked Florida even though he was not instructed to do so. His offensive showed Spain that Americans could take Florida by force. John Q. Adams convinced Spain to cede (give) Florida to the US and to give up its claim to the Louisiana territory and Oregon. In return, the US canceled their claim to Texas and released Spain from 5 million dollars that Americans held against them. The treaty is one of JQA's great accomplishments and pushed American expansion forward.

New Orleans

It came under Spanish rule in 1763 due to the Seven Years' War, when France gave it to Spain rather than allowing England to have it. In 1800, the population was about half black and half white. Most of the blacks were slaves, but the remaining 1/3 were "persons of a free color" and because of French law, had equal rights. The whites, however, were a mix of cultures such as Irish, Spanish, Germans, Americans, English and the French exiles of Acadia. New Orleans attracted immigrants because it was a thriving port city on the Mississippi.

Migration

5-10% of households moved each year during the early 19th century. 1/3 of the households on the Atlantic seaboard had moved westward starting from 1790! By 1800, 500,000 people had found fertile land among the Ohio, Cumberland, and Tennessee Rivers. Soon, there was a large enough population for statehood. Kentucky and Tennessee were the first trans-Appalachian states admitted to the Union (1790s).

Monroe Doctrine

A U.S. policy that said that any European attempt to colonize land or "interfere with states (other countries)" in the Americas would be seen as an act of aggression, which the U.S would respond to. It told the Europeans that they were not allowed to come back over here and retake their former colonies (nearly all of Central and South America had become free while Europe was distracted by the Napoleonic Wars). It was set in place to make sure the U.S would be dominant in the Americas by preserving the independence of the other former European colonies. This produced weak countries for the U.S to compete with in this hemisphere. In return, the US agreed not to interfere with European affairs.

War Hawk

A generation of political leaders who were elected to Congress in 1810. They strongly wanted independence from Britain because they didn't like that Britain was interfering in American affairs by keeping forts in the Northwest and arming the Indians. Such war hawks included future leaders as Henry Clay of Kentucky and John C. Calhoun of South Carolina.

Second Great Awakening

A religious movement in Protestant churches that started in the 1790s in New England. It was strongest on the frontier where church organization was generally weakest. The greatest of the camp meetings happened in Cane Ridge, Kentucky in 1801. 20,000 people gathered to sing and listen to preaching. Camp meetings were filled with emotion and many new converts were women. The Second Great Awakening emphasized that humans possessed a free will and that our fate was not predestined.

Empress of China

A ship that set sail in 1784 from New York for Canton, China with 40 tons of ginseng. It returned in 1785 with teas, chinaware and silks. Robert Morris and his partners sponsored the voyage and made a 30% percent profit. This sparked interest for other merchants to follow their example, opening a profitable trade with China.

Denmark Vesey

A slave who bought his freedom, Denmark Vesey attempted to organize one of the largest slave rebellions in US history. His revolt would have taken place in Charleston, South Carolina. However, his plans were found out, and he was tried, convicted, and executed.

American System

A system unlike TJ's plan for a country of self sufficient farmers, it was based on Hamilton's financial plans. It included: 1. national bank 2. protective tariffs to encourage manufacturing 3. national system of roads and canals. The main supporters of the A.S. were Henry Clay and JQ Adams. People in the South eventually opposed the AS, while the North and West generally supported it.

Barbary Wars

Also known as the Tripolitan Wars, they were two wars fought against pirates (arrr!) in North Africa from 1801-1805 and 1815. Under Washington and Adams, the US paid tribute (protection money) to the pirates (arrr!) to keep them from attacking our ships and ransoming the crews. Jefferson ended the practice, believing that paying tribute encouraged pirates (arrr!). So, he sent the best ships in the Navy, including the USS Enterprise, USS Constitution, USS Chesapeake and USS Constellation to Tripoli. Though the war has been forgotten by almost everyone, 35 Americans died and Stephen Decatur became a national hero for his bravery after sneaking onto a pirate-controlled ship and setting fire to it. The victory enhanced the reputation of the US military, which had not been tested before on foreign soil.

Sacajawea

As a young girl, she married a French fur trader. Lewis and Clark hired both of them as interpreters. She famously helped them get horses for their voyage across the Rockies. Many times, she prevented Indian attacks by being a woman with a child - when the Expedition entered a new territory, unfamiliar Indians did not attack on sight because of the presence of a woman and her child (obviously not hostile people).

Treaty of Ghent

Britain decided to end the War of 1812 with America. The treaty was an inconclusive treaty between America and Britain, signed on Christmas Eve 1814 in Ghent, Belgium. It is important in the sense that it changed Britain's view of America - Britain now took America seriously as an independent nation, which is why many historians refer to the War of 1812 as the Second War of Independence.

Tariff of 1816

British manufacturers had been excluded from the American marketplace with the Embargo Act of 1807. When it was lifted, British companies flooded America with unbeatable prices that hurt American manufacturing. Congress sought to protect American manufacturing with the Tariff of 1816. It placed a tax on imported woolens and cottons, iron leather, hats, paper, and sugar. The change was welcomed both by southerners and northerners, one of the few times the South supported a tariff.

Five Civilized Tribes

Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, Seminole (know these!), these were five Indian nations that were decidedly civil, according to the colonists. These tribes were able and willing to assimilate their lifestyles with those of the Europeans. Despite their being civilized, they were still relocated from their homes to an area west of the Mississippi River. They were promised land free of settlers, but yet there were settlers there as soon as they were!

Convention of 1818

Established the border between Canada and the US at the 49th parallel. England and the US agreed to share the Ohio Territory, and the US got rights to fish off Newfoundland and Labrador.

Hartford Convention

Federalists from five New England states sent representatives to meet at Hartford to talk about their grievances; some representatives threatened to get their states to leave the Union. The Convention's final document contained all their grievances but no threat to leave the Union. Still, the simple fact that a meeting of Federalists talked about breaking away from the Union just as we were winning the war, made them look like traitors. The Federalists died as a major party after this.

Mandan Indians

Group of natives in northern Missouri. During the winter of 1804, they helped Lewis and Clark. The two sides formed an alliance, and during the winter the Indians supplied the Americans with food and supplies. The two sides also did a great deal of trading, including syphilis, which the Mandans unwittingly transmitted to Lewis and Clark's men.

James Tallmadge

He tried to amend the Missouri Compromise so that it would guarantee gradual emancipation to all slaves in Louisiana Territory (Tallmadge Amendment), but the amendment failed. It did succeed, though, in causing trouble between the North and South, since they argued about it in Congress.

General William Hull

He tried to invade Canada, but faced superior forces and soon retreated to Detroit. He became infamous for surrendering Fort Detroit in 1812 and was court-martialed for it.

Gabriel Prosser

He was a literate, enslaved blacksmith. He was going to lead a slave revolt near Richmond, Virginia, but his plans were found out. He, along with another 26 members of the planned revolt, were hanged. The Virginian government passed more laws restricting slaves because of this event.

Samuel Chase

He was an Associate Justice on the US Supreme Court from 1796-1811. He was a Federalist. Unlike today, when judges at least pretend to be politically unbiased, Chase was openly hostile toward Democratic-Republicans. After Jefferson became President, Chase spoke out against the Democratic-Republican repeal of the Judiciary Act of 1801. This prompted Jefferson to write a letter to a Congressman asking for Chase's punishment! Chase was then formally charged (impeached) by the House of Representatives on the charge that he was biased against defendants who were Democratic-Republicans. However, when the trial took place in the Senate, he was acquitted. The impeachment trial is really important for two reasons - 1. By acquitting him, the Senate reinforced the independence of the judiciary. In other words, the other branches of government can't just remove judges they don't like. 2. Judges became more careful about avoiding the appearance of being politically biased.

John Marshall

He was one of the greatest, if not the greatest, Chief Justices of the Supreme Court. He ruled in favor of Madison in Marbury v. Madison. He gave the Supreme Court the power of judicial review (#17.) He is considered the most important Supreme Court Chief Justice in history because every one of his decisions increased the power of the federal government at the expense of the states. Any time a state and the federal government went to court against each other, he ruled in favor of the federal government (so, he was obviously a Federalist).

Henry Clay

Henry Clay was the 8th, 10th, and 13th Speaker of the House of Representatives. He also was the Secretary of State from 1825 to 1829. He wanted to go to war with England ("War Hawk"), and largely contributed to America fighting in the War of 1812. He also fought for tariffs to help American manufacturing. He was known as the "Great Compromiser" for his ability to work out difficult issues, and worked on the Missouri Compromise. In 1957, he was voted one of the five greatest Senators of all time.

Fort McHenry

In September 1814, Americans beat back a British attack on Baltimore and Fort McHenry, which somewhat made them feel better about the burning of the Capitol. An onlooker named Francis Scott Key watching the "rockets' red glare" was motivated to write the Star Spangled Banner.

Louisiana Purchase

In 1803, the United States bought the territory of Louisiana from the French for $15 million. This Louisiana Territory was not just the Louisiana that we know of today. This territory included modern-day states Louisiana, northern Texas, Oklahoma, Missouri, Arkansas, Kansas, Colorado, Wyoming, Nebraska, Iowa, Minnesota, South and North Dakota, and Montana (don't memorize this). The French sold this territory because they were desperate. They were being driven out of the Caribbean and were on the verge of another war with Britain. They needed funds and this was a great way to gain those funds. For the US, the Purchase doubled the size of the US for less than 3 cents per acre. The Purchase kicked off a controversy because nowhere in the Constitution was any provision giving the federal government the power to buy this land. Hypocritically, Thomas Jefferson, one of the staunchest strict constructionists, pushed Congress to approve the Purchase.

Election of 1824

In an election decided by the House of Representatives, John Quincy Adams was elected president over Andrew Jackson, Henry Clay, and William Crawford. By now, the Federalist Party had fallen apart, and all the candidates were Democratic Republicans. In the election, Andrew Jackson received the most popular and electoral votes, but did not win the Presidency because he did not have a majority of electoral votes. The election was determined in the House of Representatives.

National Road

It was another migration route, only it was in the middle states. It began in Cumberland, Maryland and led to Wheeling, West Virginia. It is also called the Cumberland Road.

Russian America

It was in Alaska, but Russian settlements extended as far south as California. Russian America traded sea otter furs. Settlers over hunted, and so were transient (moved around a lot). They eventually set up forts on the Pacific coast all the way down to Fort Ross (near the middle of today's California). The presence of Russian settlements worried the Spanish, who claimed land all the way up to the southern border of Alaska.

Wilderness Road

It was one of four major migration routes used by Americans to travel west. The road connected Virginia to Kentucky. The route was blazed by Daniel Boone in 1775, and was very steep and traversable only by foot or horseback for many years.

Mowhawk and Genesee Turnpike

It was one of the four main migration routes to the West. It was in up-state New York, and led the people of New England to Lake Erie, where they then took a boat to Ohio.

Rush-Bagot Treaty

It was organized by JQA to demilitarize the Great Lakes. In other words, the border between the US and Canada would not be armed.

Election of 1816

James Monroe defeated Rufus King in the election for president with 183 to 34 electoral votes. It marked the end of the Federalist Party; they never entered another candidate. This was due partly because Federalists had lost ground by not supporting the War of 1812. The DRs had also adopted Federalist polices of a national bank and protective tariffs, which left the Federalists without much to argue. In 1820, James Monroe ran for reelection without a Federalist opponent. He was reelected in 1820, 231 votes to only 1 opposing vote (The 1 vote was ceremonial - they wanted to keep it so that GW was the only unanimously-elected President).

Agrarian Republic

Jefferson believed that America provided the true citizenship necessary to a republican from of government. He envisioned a nation of small family farms clustered together in rural communities. He also believed that only a nation of equal yeoman farmers who weren't dependent on someone else for their livelihood would be essential for this republic. Rural contact with nature was essential to the republican character. He said, "those who labor in the earth are the chosen people of God." His 'farm,' however, was the slave-owning plantation known as Monticello. It seems odd to argue that the people who worked the land were considered the chosen ones when Jefferson's farm included slaves!

The frugal Thomas Jefferson

Jefferson came into office determined to reverse the Federalist ways. He also proposed cutting internal taxes, decreasing the size of the army and navy, and limiting the numbers of the government staff to prevent national debt. He kept those promises, unlike most Presidents.

Toussaint L'Ouverture

Leader of the Haitian Slave Rebellion against France. Though L'Ouverture was captured and died in prison, his efforts freed Haiti from French rule. He is very important to American history in an indirect way. Before the rebellion, Haiti was France's richest possession in America because of sugar. Napoleon obtained control over Louisiana (see #20) in order to use Louisiana as a giant farm to support Haiti's slaves. When Haiti won its independence, Napoleon decided to sell Louisiana to the US.

Lewis and Clark Expedition

Led by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark. They were the first to travel all the way to the Pacific Ocean and back. Their goal was to explore the land America gained in the Louisiana Purchase. Thomas Jefferson specifically told them to explore the Missouri River and follow it back to its source. Throughout their journey, Lewis and Clark drafted over a hundred maps, giving people an idea of the Northwest. They crossed the Rockies, which was extremely difficult on foot. They recorded 122 species of animals and 178 species of plants. They also made friendships with natives in the area, specifically Sacajawea.

Era of Good Feelings

Monroe made a goodwill tour after his inauguration, the first president since GW to do so. When he visited Boston, the Federalist Columbian Centinel proclaimed an era of good feelings. Monroe wanted national and political unity. He placed both Federalists and Democratic-Republicans in office instead of just DRs. The phrase Era of Good Feelings has become attached to Monroe's presidency. It ended with the Panic of 1819.

Federal Road

Originally the Georgia Road, it became the Federal Road after the federal government pumped money in to improve it. It was the southernmost of the four major trails; it allowed farmers from South Carolina and eastern Georgia to travel into Alabama and Mississippi.

City of Brotherly Love

Philadelphia

Re-exports

Re-exports are goods that have been exported to one country, and then that country re-exports them to a different country. (Ex. The French were not allowed to trade with Britain, but they had goods the British people wanted. So, America, being a neutral country, took advantage of this and imported France's goods. America then exported them to Britain and obtained goods and money.) This created some friction with the British and French governments, who had embargoed each others' products, and the US was helping to circumvent the embargo.

John Quincy Adams

Son of the second president, John Adams. John Quincy Adams was Secretary of State under Monroe, and he became president after the disputed election of 1824(see #67). He was a bitter enemy of slavery and predicted the Civil War. He also negotiated the Rush-Bagot Treaty (see # 57) and the Adams-Onis Treaty (see #59). He was the author of the Monroe Doctrine (see #60). After he was defeated in 1828, he won election to the House of Representatives and served ably for many years.

Northern New Spain

Spain sent people to colonize the Pacific coast in fear of the British, who were pushing west through Canada, and the Russians. The British and Spanish both claimed the region north of California to the southern border of Alaska. So, Russia, Britain, and Spain all claimed the same territory. Spain explored Vancouver Island, Columbia River, and the southeastern Alaska coast. Spain tried to get a foothold in the fur trade, but failed. In extra effort to protect against the British and Russians, a series of twenty missions (to convert people to Catholicism) was set up, including Los Angeles. LA was the biggest (about 300 people in 1800) and that was the seat of Spanish colonial government in California.

Burning of the Capitol

The British had built up a strong navy and were harassing coastal shipping and attacking settlements at will. In the summer of 1814, the most humiliating attack happened. The British burned the Capitol, forcing President Madison and Congress to flee. Dolley Madison, the president's wife, famously saved a portrait of George Washington as she fled.

Panic of 1819

The Panic of 1819 was the first major financial crisis in America. This Panic was the end of the "economic expansion that had followed the War of 1812" and the end of the Era of Good Feelings.

Monticello

The name of Thomas Jefferson's house, designed by Jefferson. It was built upon a hill near Charlottesville, VA. The process took nearly 40 years because Jefferson was constantly changing his mind on the design. It was finished in 1809, and the result was one of the most beautiful examples of American neoclassical architecture (in the style of the Italian Renaissance).

Indian Neutrality - why?

The natives started befriending the Americans because they had no other choice. They were dying from disease, along with their game. They needed to learn the ways of the Americans because they had adapted to their surroundings.

Virginia Dynasty

The succession of presidents from Virginia between 1789 and 1825. Four Virginians held the presidency for thirty-two of thirty-six years: George Washington, who served from 1789 to 1797; Thomas Jefferson, who served from 1801 to 1809; James Madison, who served from 1809 to 1817; and James Monroe, who served from 1817 to 1825. The only interruption in the Virginia Dynasty came from 1797 to 1801, when John Adams, a native of Massachusetts, served a single term as president.

Corrupt Bargain

The term referring to the selection of John Quincy Adams over Andrew Jackson in the 1824 election. Jackson got more electoral votes than any other candidate, but the vote went to the House of Representatives because no candidate had the majority. Some people think that Henry Clay convinced the House to vote for John Quincy Adams, who later chose Henry Clay to be the Secretary of State. Jackson's people claimed that Clay voted for Adams because Adams had promised Clay the Secretary of State position. Back then, being Secretary of State gave a person a very good chance of becoming president (Jefferson, Madison, Monroe, and Adams had all been Secretary of State).

Judiciary Act of 1801

This act was passed because of a lack of judges in the circuit courts. The distance the judges had to travel was immense, so President Adams signed this act on the final night of his presidency to ease the pressure on each judge. He hired more judges and created more circuits, lessening the travel of the judges. Or at least that was the excuse used by the Federalists. The other reason for hiring the judges was to guarantee that Federalists would control the judicial branch of government a really long time (judges serve for life), and therefore be able to guard against the power of the newly-elected Democratic-Republicans. Democratic-Republicans were angered by this act because they had just won the election, and now the judges were a bunch of Federalists.

Midnight judges

This refers to the three judges that were appointed and hired in the final minutes of Adams' presidency. They were hired as part of the Judiciary Act of 1801. As soon as he took office, Jefferson set to work to stop the judges from taking their seats and to get rid of the Judiciary Act of 1801. Congress quickly complied and repealed the act.

Treaty of San Ildefonso (1800)

This treaty was a secretive treaty in which France handed over a territory, Tuscany, to the Spanish in exchange for six battleships. Spain then gave France control of Louisiana. This turned out to be huge because it allowed Napoleon to sell Louisiana to us in 1803.

Treaty of Fort Wayne

This treaty, signed in 1809, gave the US control over most of Indiana. The treaty was between the US and many tribes, but not the Shawnee. The Shawnee were angry, leading to Tecumseh's War, including battles at Thames and Tippecanoe.

Missouri Compromise

This was an agreement between the pro and anti-slavery supporters in the U.S. No one could own slaves north of the 36th parallel in the Louisiana Territory (36 degrees and 30 minutes North latitude - the southern border of Missouri) except in Missouri. This agreement made Missouri a slave state and Maine a free state.

Jefferson's Inauguration (1801)

Thomas Jefferson's Inauguration as the third president of the United States was important because it marked the peaceful transition of power from one political party to another for the first time in US history. Those parties were the Federalists, and their hated rivals, the Democratic Republicans. His presidency demonstrated that national policy could be changed without dictatorship or revolt. Unlike Washington and Adams, who rode in horse-drawn carriages with liverymen, Jefferson walked down Pennsylvania Avenue like a regular person.

Impressment

Used mostly by the navy, it is the act of forcing an English-speaking man into the British navy. As many as half of America's sailors in the early 1800s were defectors from the British navy. The American government gave the sailors papers stating that they were American, but the British ignored the papers. Sometimes the British even impressed sailors who were actually American. The British practice of impressment greatly angered Americans and led to the War of 1812.

Captain Oliver Perry

Was a naval captain who defeated a British navy squadron on Lake Erie. He sent out the famous message, "We have met the enemy and they are ours." Without the lake, the British could no longer keep control over Detroit. He assisted General William Henry Harrison in the Battle of Thames.

Marbury v. Madison (1803), doctrine of judicial review

William Marbury had been made a "midnight judge." When Marbury tried to take his position, he was blocked by Secretary of State James Madison. Supreme Court Chief Justice, John Marshall, decided Marbury's accusations based on the Judiciary Act of 1789 were unconstitutional, the first time the Supreme Court had ruled any Congressional act unconstitutional. It also gave the Supreme Court the power of a doctrine of judicial review, which gave them final say on any case that they looked into. According to the doctrine of judicial review, the Court had the power to strike down any law as unconstitutional if it conflicted with the Constitution. It made the court as powerful as the President or Congress.

Essay on the Principle of Population

Written by Thomas Malthus, this was a very pessimistic and influential essay warning about population explosion. Malthus predicted that the British population would soon deplete the country's food supply. Malthus warned that if the population wasn't checked then it would spread throughout Europe and even America. Jefferson used the threat that Malthus discussed as a way to emphasize the importance of remaining agricultural (can't starve if everyone's farming!) and (very importantly) to stress the importance of expanding the country westward.

Tenskwatawa

a father of twenty children and a husband of three wives, Tenskwatawa was the religious leader of his tribe. Tenskwatawa stayed in the tribe when his brother went across America to unite the Indian tribes. Tenskwatawa ignored his brother's warnings and was defeated in the Battle of Tippecanoe.

Chesapeake

a sailing frigate belonging to the US Navy, it was one of the six original frigates to be constructed under the Naval Act of 1794. Chesapeake fought in the Quasi-War and a little bit of the First Barbary War. In 1807, the British ship HMS Leopard hailed and requested to search the Chesapeake to look for deserters. The Chesapeake refused and the Leopard opened fire, killing 3 and wounding 18. The Chesapeake was then boarded and 4 sailors were taken off the ship. This action created quite a stir in America, but Jefferson turned to diplomacy instead of war (at first). The event is considered to be one of the major causes of the War of 1812.

Election of 1808

between James Madison (Democratic-Republican) and Charles Cotesworth Pinckney (Federalist), it was the second attempt, and failure, at becoming President by Pinckney. Madison replaced Jefferson and became the 4th President.

Macon's Bill #2 (1810)

lifted the ban on American ships trading with British and French ships. It allowed trading as long as each country stopped attacking the American ships. If one country attacked, it would lose its trade privileges until it recognized America's neutrality rights. France treated our shipping with more respect than Britain, so we ended up banning trade with Britain, a big reason why we went to war against them and not France.

Non-Intercourse Act (1809

replaced the Embargo Act and was put into place just four days before the end of President Thomas Jefferson's term as president. It was virtually impossible to enforce this act. The act lifted trade restrictions between America and every country except Britain and France. The goal behind the bill was to hurt or damage each of the two country's economies. Like the act it replaced, it was largely ineffective.