chapter 9

human-computer interaction

(HCI) focuses on improving the interactions between users and computers by making computers more usable and receptive to the user's needs.

Real‐time reports

. Real‐time reports provide data that are accurate to the second or minute at which they were produced (e.g., stock market quotes).

user interface five componets

1.An important starting point is to ensure that we understand the users of the system, particularly if the users are external to the organization. 2.second, the analysts organize the interface using a variety of tools, such as the interface structure diagram (ISD) and site map 3.Third, the analysts design interface standards, which are the basic design elements on which interfaces in the system are based. 4.Fourth, the analysts create an interface design prototype for each of the individual interfaces in the system, such as navigation controls, input screens, output screens, forms (including preprinted paper forms), and reports. 5.Finally, the individual interfaces are subjected to interface evaluation/testing to determine whether they are satisfactory and how they can be improved.

Explain three important user interface design principles.

1.navigation design 2.input design 3.output design

What are three fundamental parts of most user interfaces?

1.navigation mechanism, the way in which the user gives instructions to the system and tells it what to do. 2.input mechanism, the way in which the system captures information 3.output mechanism, the way in which the system provides information to the user

Why are menus the most commonly used navigation control?

A menu presents the user with a list of choices, each of which can be selected. Menus are easy to learn because the user sees an organized but limited set of choices.

Use scenario

A use scenario is an outline of the steps that the users perform to accomplish some part of their work. A use scenario is one commonly used path through a use case.

wireframe diagram

A wireframe diagram is used to convey the basic content and behavior of the screens in the system (typically Web pages). The goal of these diagrams is to enable the developers to focus on the screen's functionality, not on how it looks. With a wireframe diagram, we can address what types of information will be on the page and the relative priorities of that information. However, one of the challenges with wireframe diagrams is their inability to show the interactivity that is possible on the Web page (such as carousels or expanding panels)

Aesthetics

Aesthetics refers to designing interfaces that are pleasing to the eye. Interfaces do not have to be works of art, but they do need to be functional and inviting to use. In most cases, "less is more," meaning that a simple, minimalist design is the best.

Why do we prototype the user interface design?

An interface design prototype is a mock‐up or a simulation of a computer screen, form, or report. A prototype is prepared for each interface in the system to show the users how the system will perform and the programmers what to develop. There are many different tools used to create prototypes, ranging from simple paper sketches to models that closely represent the final interface. Reviewing all of the techniques is beyond our scope, so we focus on a few of the more common options.

walk‐through evaluation

An interface design walk‐through evaluation is a meeting conducted with the users who will ultimately have to operate the system. The project team presents the prototype to the users and walks them through the various parts of the interface. The project team shows the storyboard or actually demonstrates the HTML or language prototype and explains how the interface will be used. The users identify improvements to each of the interfaces that are presented.

batch reports

Batch reports are those that report historical information that may be months, days, or hours old, and they often provide additional information beyond the reported information (e.g., totals, summaries, historical averages).

Graphs

Charts used in addition to and instead of tables of numbers. When users need to compare data among several items

check digit check

Check digits are added to numeric codes. When numeric codes are used

Database checks

Compare data against a data base (or file) to ensure that they are correct. When data are available to be checked

consistency

Consistency in design is probably the single most important factor in making a system simple to use, because it enables users to predict what will happen. When interfaces are consistent, users can interact with one part of the system and then know how to interact with the rest—aside, of course, from elements unique to those parts. Consistency usually refers to the interface within one computer system, so that all parts of the same system work in the same way.

consistency check

Ensure that combinations of data are valid. When data are related

Completeness check

Ensures that all required data have been entered. When several fields must be entered before the form can be processed

Format check

Ensures that data are of the right type (e.g., numeric) and in the right format (e.g., month, day, year). When fields are numeric or contain coded data

Range check

Ensures that numeric data are within correct minimum and maximum values. With all numeric data, if possible

graphical user interfaces

Evolving technology has enabled us to move from plain, text‐based user interfaces to graphical user interfaces1 with windows, menus, icons, and a mouse, to small screen touch‐based mobile device applications

fields

Fields are the individual elements of data that are input or output.

Usability testing

Formal usability testing is commonly done with commercial software products and products developed by large organizations that will be widely used through the organization. As the name suggests, it is a very formal—almost scientific—process that can be used only with language prototypes (and systems that have been completely built and are awaiting installation or shipping)

four common approaches

Four common approaches are heuristic evaluation, walk‐through evaluation, interactive evaluation, and formal usability testing.

ease of use

Frequent users are typically more concerned with ease of use—how quickly and easily they can complete a task with the system once they have learned how to use it.

personas

Identified user groups can be represented with personas

drop down selection list

If screen space is limited and only one item can be selected, then a drop‐down selection list is the best choice, because not all list items need to be displayed on the screen. Displays selected item in one‐line box that opens to reveal list of choices.

on‐screen selection list

If the list is short, an on‐screen selection list can be used. Presents a list of choices in a box. Seldom or never—only if there is insufficient room for check boxes or radio buttons

default values

In many cases, we can predict the most likely value for a field. These values should be used as the default value for the data so that the user can simply accept the value and not have to retype it time and time again. Examples of default values are the current date, the area code held by the majority of a company's customers, and a shipping address that is the same as the billing address. Changes to default values are made when necessary to reflect the actual data.

Explain three principles in the design of inputs.

Input mechanisms facilitate the entry of data into the computer system, whether highly structured data, such as order information (e.g., item numbers, quantities, costs), or unstructured information (e.g., comments). Input design means designing the screens used to enter the information, as well as any forms on which users write or type information (e.g., time cards, expense claims). Basic Principles The goal of input design is to capture accurate information for the system simply and easily. The fundamental principles for input design reflect the nature of the inputs (whether batch or online) and ways to simplify their collection.

validation

Input validation (also called edit checks) can take many forms. Ideally, to prevent invalid information from entering the system, computer systems should not accept data that fail any important validation check. However, this can be very difficult, and invalid data often slip by the users providing the information.

system interfaces

It is also important to remember that there may be system interfaces that exchange information with other systems. System interfaces are typically designed as part of a systems integration effort. They are defined in general terms on the physical data flow diagrams (DFDs) and in the nonfunctional (operational) requirements, and are designed in detail during program design (see Chapter 10) and data storage design (see Chapter 11).

layout

Layout refers to organizing areas of the screen or document for different purposes and using those areas consistently throughout the user interface. Most software designed for personal computers follows the standard Windows or Macintosh approach for screen layout. This approach divides the screen into three main areas: the top area provides the user with ways to navigate through the system; the middle (and largest) area is for display of the user's work; and the bottom area contains status information about what the user is doing.

Detail report

Lists detailed information about all the items requested. When user needs full information about the items

Summary report

Lists summary information about all items. When user needs brief information on many items

Compare and contrast four types of menus.

Menu Bar-List of commands at the top of the screen. Always on screen. Main menu for system Drop‐down Menu-Menu that drops down immediately below another menu. Disappears after one use. Second‐level menu, often from menu bar Hyperlink Menu-A set of items arranged as a menu, usually along one edge of the screen. Main menu for Web‐based system Embedded Hyperlinks-A set of items embedded and underlined in text. As a link to ancillary, optional information Pop‐up Menu-Menu that pops up and floats over the screen. Disappears after one use.As a shortcut to commands for experienced users Tab Menu-Multipage menu with one tab for each page that pops up and floats over the screen. Remains on screen until closed.When user needs to change several settings or perform several related commands Tool Bar-Menu of buttons (often with icons) that remains on the screen until closed.As a shortcut to commands for experienced users Image Map-Graphical image in which certain areas are linked to actions or other menus.Only when the graphical image adds meaning to the menu

user experience (UX)

Mobile, ubiquitous, and social computing applications have broadened our concerns to that of the overall user experience (UX)—where users' feelings, motivations, and values are considered as well as efficiency, effectiveness, and satisfaction. A complete discussion of UX design is beyond the scope of this textbook; however, we will include extensive discussion of one of the key elements of the UX—usability.

source data automation

Most transaction processing systems today employ source data automation by using special hardware devices to capture data.

html prototype

One of the most common types of interface design prototypes used today is the HTML prototype. As the name suggests, an HTML prototype is built with the use of Web pages created in hypertext mark‐up language (HTML). The designer uses HTML to create a series of Web pages that show the fundamental parts of the system.

draw isd

One way to draw an ISD is to draw each interface element (e.g., screen, form, report) as a box and give it a unique number (at the top) and a unique name (in the middle). The numbers usually follow a tree‐type structure, although this is not always done. Unlike with DFDs, the numbers do not mean that all the screens belong to "parents" higher in the tree; instead, they usually imply relationships between a menu and a submenu. The lines denote the ability to navigate from one menu to another.

Turnaround document

Outputs that "turn around" and become inputs. When a user (often a customer) needs to return an output to be processed

What are personas and use scenarios, and why are they important?

Personas can be used to create descriptions of a fictional person who aggregates the common characteristics of a particular user group. use scenario is an outline of the steps that the users perform to accomplish some part of their work

personas

Personas can be used to create descriptions of a fictional person who aggregates the common characteristics of a particular user group. By defining this person in terms of interests, typical behaviors, goals and objectives, and expectations, the analyst can plan for a user interface that will be satisfying for that particular user group.

Check box selection list

Presents a complete list of choices, each with a square box in front.When several items can be selected from a list of items

Radio button selection list

Presents a complete list of mutually exclusive choices, each with a circle in front.When only one item can be selected from a set of mutually exclusive items

what type of forms do prototypes take?

Prototypes can take a variety of forms, including storyboards, wireframe diagrams, wireflow diagrams, and more realistic models.

Up‐down numeric control

Scroll arrows move up or down through numeric range.When entering a numeric value

types of menus

Some of the more common types of menus include menu bars, drop‐down menus, pop‐up menus, tab menus, tool bars, and image maps.

navigation

Tap Users can navigate to destinations by touching elements Scroll and pan Users can slide surfaces vertically, horizontally, or omnidirectionally to move continuously through content Drag Users can slide surfaces to bring them into and out of view Swipe Users can move surfaces horizontally to navigate between peers, like tabs Pinch Users can scale surfaces to navigate between screens Action Gestures: Perform actions or provide shortcuts for completing actions Tap or Long press Users can interact with elements and access additional functionality Swipe Users can slide elements to complete actions upon passing a threshold Transform Gestures: Transform an element's size, position, and rotation with gestures Double tap or Pinch Users can zoom into and out of content Compound gestures Users can fluidly transition between various gestures Pick up and move Users can reorder content with a long press and drag

Describe three basic principles of navigation design.

The first principle of designing navigation controls is to prevent the user from making mistakes. Simplify Recovery from Mistakes Use Consistent Grammar Order

interface metaphor(s)

The fundamental interface metaphor(s) is a concept from the real world that is used as a model for the information system. The metaphor helps the user to understand the system and enables the user to predict what features the interface might provide, even without actually using the system. Sometimes systems have one metaphor, whereas in other cases there are several metaphors in different parts of the system.

key point using use scenarios

The goal is to describe the handful of most commonly occurring use scenarios so that the interface can be designed to enable the most common uses to be performed simply and easily.

interface actions

The interface actions are common commands that will be employed by the users

interface icons

The interface objects and actions and also their status (e.g., deleted, error), may be represented by interface icons. Icons are small pictures that will appear on command buttons as well as in forms and reports to highlight important information. Icon design is very challenging because it means developing a tiny simple picture that must convey an often‐complex meaning. The simplest and best approach is to adopt icons developed by others (e.g., a pencil indicates "edit;" a trashcan indicates "delete"). Because users have seen them in other software, the meaning will be easily understood.

Why are interface standards important?

The interface standards are the basic design elements that are common across the individual screens, forms, and reports within the system. Depending on the application, there may be several sets of interface standards for different parts of the system (e.g., one for Web screens, one for paper reports, one for input forms). The standards serve as the touchstone ensuring that the interfaces are consistent across the system.

Interface structure design

The interface structure design defines the basic components of the interface and how they work together to provide functionality to users. An interface structure diagram (ISD) is used to show how all the screens, forms, and reports used by the system are related and how the user moves from one to another. Most systems have several ISDs, one for each major part of the system.

interface template

The interface template defines the general appearance of all interface components in the information system (screens, forms, and reports). The template design specifies the basic layout of the screens (e.g., where the navigation area(s), status area, and form/report area(s) are placed), the color scheme(s) that will be applied, and the font styles and sizes to be used. It defines whether windows will replace one another on the screen or will cascade on top of each other. The template defines a standard placement and order for common interface actions (e.g., "File, Edit, View" rather than "File, View, Edit"). In short, the template draws together all the other major interface design elements: metaphors, objects, actions, and icons. Templates help ensure user interface consistency throughout the system.

interface objects

The major interface objects are the fundamental building blocks of the system, such as the entities and data stores

Why is it important to perform an interface evaluation before the system is built?

The objective of interface evaluation is to understand how to improve the interface design.interface evaluation should be performed while the system is being designed—before it is built—so that any major design problems can be identified and corrected before the time and cost of programming have been spent on a weak design.

story board prototype

The storyboard shows hand‐drawn pictures of what the screens will look like and how they will flow from one screen to another, in the same way that a storyboard for a cartoon shows how the action will flow from one scene to the next (Figure 9‐13). Storyboards are the simplest technique because all they require is paper (often on a flip chart) and a pen—and someone with some artistic ability.

types of messages

There are many different types of messages, such as error messages, confirmation messages, acknowledgment messages, delay messages, and help messages

user interface design

User interface design is a five‐component process that is iterative—analysts often move back and forth between components rather than proceed sequentially

wireflow diagrams

When wireframe diagrams have been developed for the screens, some analysts prefer to create wireflow diagrams—a kind of merger of the storyboard and the wireframe diagram. With this combination, you can envision the use of the screens, perhaps in a series, to accomplish an overall task. Another idea is to envision a specific persona interacting with the wireflow diagram and imagining that persona's reaction to the experience.

Interactive evaluation

With an interactive evaluation, the users themselves actually work with the HTML or language prototype in one‐on‐one sessions with members of the project team. (An interactive evaluation cannot be used with a storyboard.) As the user works with the prototype (often by going through the use scenarios or just navigating at will through the system), he or she tells the project team members what he or she likes and does not like and what additional information or functionality is needed.

batch processing

With batch processing, all the input transactions collected over some period are gathered together and processed at one time in a batch. Some business processes naturally generate information in batches. For example, most hourly payroll processing uses batch processing because time cards are gathered together each pay period and processed as a batch. Batch processing also is used for transaction processing systems that do not require real‐time information.

online processing

With online processing (sometimes called online transaction processing), each input transaction is entered and processed at the time the event occurs.Online processing is needed when it is critical to have real‐time information about the business process. For example, when you reserve that airline seat, the seat should not be sold to someone else, so that piece of information must be recorded immediately.

language prototype

a language prototype is an interface design prototype built in the actual language or by the actual tool that will be used to build the system. Language prototypes are designed in the same way as HTML prototypes. (They enable the user to move from screen to screen, but they perform no real processing.)

Under what circumstances should densities be low? high?

densities that are to high has too much information packed into too small a space with too little white space. novice or infrequent users of an interface, whether on a screen or on paper, prefer interfaces with low density. More experienced users prefer higher densities, sometimes approaching 90% occupied, because they know where information is located and high densities reduce the amount of physical movement through the interface

error messages

error messages and help messages require particular care. Messages (and especially error messages) should always explain the problem in polite, succinct terms (e.g., what the user did incorrectly) and explain corrective action as clearly and as explicitly as possible so that the user knows exactly what needs to be done.

Compare and contrast the four types of interface evaluation.

heuristic evaluation walk‐through evaluation Interactive Evaluation formal usability testing

heuristic evaluation

heuristic evaluation examines the interface by comparing it to a set of heuristics, or principles, for interface design. The project team develops a checklist of interface design principles—from the list at the start of this chapter, for example, as well as the lists of principles in the navigation, input, and output design sections

ease of learning

how quickly and easily they can learn to use the system.

Why is consistency in design important? Why can too much consistency cause problems?

important factor in making a system simple to use, because it enables users to predict what will happen.When reports and forms are very similar except for minor changes in titles, users sometimes have difficulty perceiving the differences.

What is a site map and an interface structure diagram (ISD), and why are they used?

interface structure design defines the basic components of the interface and how they work together to provide functionality to users. a site map can be a useful tool to organize the content. A site map helps analysts clarify how all the information on the site fits together and helps establish the hierarchy of information on the site.

What is white space, and why is it important?

is any section of a document that is unused or space around an object. areas are separated by white space so that clutter is minimized.

Interface design

is the process of defining how the system interacts with the external entities (e.g., customers, suppliers, and other systems).

Why is content awareness important?

it refers to the ability of an interface to make the user aware of the information it contains with the least amount of effort by the user. All parts of the interface, whether navigation, input, or output, should provide as much content awareness as possible, but it is particularly important for forms or reports that are used quickly or irregularly (e.g., a website). without it people wont be aware

magnetic stripe readers

magnetic stripe readers, which can read information encoded on a stripe of magnetic material (e.g., credit cards)

grammar order

ne of the most fundamental decisions is the grammar order. Most commands require the user to specify an object (e.g., file, record, word) and the action to be performed on that object (e.g., copy, delete). The interface can require the user to first choose the object and then the action (an object-action order) or first choose the action and then the object (an action-object order). Most Windows applications use an object-action grammar order (e.g., think about copying a block of text in your word processor).

There are two general approaches for entering inputs into a computer system:

online processing and batch processing.

How can a system be designed to be used by both experienced and first‐time users?

provides icons that represent common tasks organized within similar groupings under the ribbon's main tabs. Infrequent users can quickly access a brief help message about an icon by a mouse hover, thus assisting their ease of learning. Frequent users can use that mouse hover to learn about less frequently used parts of the system (ease of learning) but can also learn and apply shortcuts to the commonly used commands (e.g., Cntl + C for copying text), thereby increasing their ease of use.

radio frequency identification (RFID) tag

radio frequency identification (RFID) tag, combining a microprocessor chip with an antenna to broadcast its information to electronic readers.

usage level

refers to designing the user interface to accommodate both users who use the system heavily and routinely and users who use the system only occasionally.

Content awareness

refers to the ability of an interface to make the user aware of the information it contains with the least amount of effort by the user. All parts of the interface, whether navigation, input, or output, should provide as much content awareness as possible, but it is particularly important for forms or reports that are used quickly or irregularly

Explain the differences between object-action order and action-object order.

require the user to first choose the object and then the action or first choose the action and then the object

usability

systems that are easy to use and easy to learn. When a system's user interface is very usable, users will be more likely to use the system, an important consideration when using the system is optional. A usable interface will reduce user effort, enabling the user to focus attention on the task at hand, not on making the system work. In addition, usability increases the speed of task completion and reduces errors. Clearly, usability is an essential aspect of a quality information system, but developing a user interface that ranks high on usability is neither a simple nor a trivial process.

field labels

that identify the fields on the interface should be short and specific—objectives that often conflict.

input mechanism

the way in which the system captures information (e.g., forms for adding new customers)

output mechanism

the way in which the system provides information to the user (e.g., reports).

navigation mechanism

the way in which the user gives instructions to the system and tells it what to do (e.g., buttons, menus)

user interfaces

the way in which the users interact with the system

three‐clicks rule

users should be able to go from the start or main menu of a system to the information or action they want in no more than three mouse clicks or three keystrokes.