Chapter 9 Exam; First Class Quizlet 🥂

Generalization

A conclusion drawn from specific information that is used to make a broad statement about a topic or person. (all white furry things)

mere exposure effect

A learned preference for a stimuli to which we have been previously exposed to. example (coke vs pepsi)

associative learning

Associative learning occurs when you learn something based on a new stimulus. For example, when you accidentally touch a hot stove, you feel pain and pull your arm back quickly. When this happens, you learn that 'touching a hot stove is dangerous'.

escape conditioning

Avoidance of unpleasant stimuli by learning new behaviors to help terminate the occurring unpleasant stimuli.

B.F. Skinner

Behaviorist that developed the theory of operant conditioning by training pigeons and rats.

How is a conditioned response learned?

By pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus. Example: A person who is bitten by a barking dog may experience feelings of fear and anxiety whenever he or she hears a barking noise. The fear that people feel when they hear a bark is a conditioned response.

Feedback

Finding out the results of behavior or actions you have performed.

what is the difference between positive and negative reinforcement?

For positive reinforcement, think of it as adding something positive in order to increase a response. For negative reinforcement, think of it as taking something negative away in order to increase a response.

learned helplessness

If pain comes no matter how hard one tries. (leads to depression)

negative transfer

If previously learned behavior hinders your ability to learn new behaviors. example (driving in England.. opposite side= difficulty)

avoidance

Is the process of preventing the aversive stimulus before it has started.

What are some examples of operant conditioning?

Operant conditioning can also be used to decrease a behavior via the removal of a desirable outcome or the application of a negative outcome. For example, a child may be told they will lose recess privileges if they talk out of turn in class.

Edward Thorndike

Pioneer in operant conditioning who discovered concepts in intstrumental learning such as the law of effect. Known for his work with cats in puzzle boxes.

Pro-social effect

Positive , helpful , ex: volunteering , work ethic

What are two ways to have behavior repeated?

Positive reinforcer/Negative reinforcer

intermittent (partial) schedule

Responses are most stable and persistent when reinforced on this schedule.

With classical conditioning you can teach a dog to salivate, but you cannot teach it to sit up or roll over. Why?

Salivation is an involuntary reflex, while sitting up and rolling over are far more complex responses that we think of as voluntary.

3 types of modeling

Simplest Form, Observational Learning, Disinhibition. Simplest form: the behavior of others simply increases the chances that we will do the same. observational learning: a learner watches a model perform a behavior and is later able to produce it closely. disinhibition: an observer watches someone engage in a threatening activity and the observer later finds it easier to engage in the activity.

Reinforcement is NOT a punishment

TRUE

acquisition

The initial stage in classical conditioning; the phase associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

positive transfer

The process by which previously learned actions or responses help you in learning new responses. example (playing clarinet will help play saxophone).

aversive

The term used in operant conditioning for unpleasant events.

anti-social effect

This term explains why an abusive parent might have aggressive children.

Law of Effect (Thorndike)

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely. (behavior followed by satisfying consequences would then be repeated)

cognitive learning

Type of learning of in which changes are explained with the mental process rather than changes in behavior alone.

Dishinibition

When someone watches another person engage in a threatening activity for which they are not punished

How can the conditioned response become extinct?

When the conditioned response no longer appears with the conditioned stimulus, then the conditioned response will become extinct.

how do people develop taste aversions?

When you become sick after eating a certain food, you correlate that food with sickness therefore will develop an aversion with that food. This usually happens when you have a bad experience with a certain food. It is our body's natural way of protecting us from becoming sick.

Operant Chamber (Skinner Box)

a chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer, with attached devices to record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking. Used in operant conditioning research.

taste aversion

a learned avoidance of a particular food

conditioned response

a learned response to a previously neutral stimulus

cognitive mapping

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment

variable-ratio schedule

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses. example (slot machine)

variable-interval schedule

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals. Example: (A POP QUIZ)

fixed-ratio schedule

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

fixed-interval schedule

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed. example (End of grading period- performance increases right before time expires.)

Learning

a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience.

positive reinforcer

a stimulus ADDED to the environment that brings about an increase in a preceding response.

conditioned stimulus (CS)

a stimulus that elicits a response only after learning has taken place

unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

a stimulus that elicits a response, such as a reflex, without any prior learning

conditioned reinforcer

a stimulus that has acquired reinforcing properties through prior learning

insight

a sudden realization of a problem's solution

Operant Conditioning (Skinner)

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.

Result of Bobo Doll Experiment

aggressive behavior

List examples of primary reinforcers.

air,food,sleep.

punishment

an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows

Sensitization

an increase in behavioral response after exposure to a stimulus. For example, if a loud sound is suddenly heard, an individual may startle at that sound.

token economy

an operant conditioning procedure in which people earn a token of some sort for exhibiting a desired behavior and can later exchange the tokens for various privileges or treats. Example (Jacob gets a sticker each time he clears his plate from the table after a meal. Once he has 10 stickers his parents will let him play a new game on the iPad he's not normally allowed to play. In this example the tokens are stickers.)

Habituation

an organism's decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it. example) My sister stopped flinching the more I flashed her with a flashlight.

negative reinforcer

an unpleasant stimulus whose REMOVAL leads to an increase in the probability that a preceding response will be repeated in the future.

John B. Watson

behaviorism; emphasis on external behaviors of people and their reactions on a given situation; famous for Little Albert study in which baby was taught to fear a white rat. believed that phobias are conditioned responses.

Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)

creation of involuntary responses to stimuli

Ivan Pavlov

discovered classical conditioning; trained dogs to salivate at the ringing of a bell

Factors that affect learning

feedback, transfer, practice feedback= information received after the action was performed. transfer= The effects of past learning on the ability to learn new tasks; positive/negative practice= Repetition of a task that helps bind responses together; mental practice

4 types of intermittent reinforcement?

fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, variable interval

learned laziness

if rewards come without effort, a person never learns to work

neutral stimulus (NS)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

Discrimination

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus. (white furry rat only)

unconditioned response (UCR)

in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.

practice

learn by repetition

observational learning

learning by observing others; also called social learning

Shaping

learning that results from the reinforcement of successive steps to a final desired behavior

latent learning

learning that takes place in the absence of reinforcement

Name and explain 3 ways how people feel when they can't control stuff around them.

may be less motivated to act and thus stop trying, may have trouble learning and bring about new outcomes or may stop thinking, may experience a lowered sense of self-esteem and think negatively about themselves.

List examples of conditioned (secondary) reinforcers.

money, good grades.

Two ways aversive stimuli is used.

negative reinforcers and punishers. aversive=negative positive punishment= ADDS punishment

mirror neurons

neurons in the brain that are activated when one observes another individual engage in an action and when one performs a similar action

response chain

new responses are put together so that each one produces the signal for the next.

Albert Bandura

pioneer in observational learning (AKA social learning), stated that people profit from the mistakes/successes of others; Studies: Bobo Dolls-adults demonstrated 'appropriate' play with dolls, children mimicked play

2 ways to decrease behavior

positive and negative punishment examples positive punishment= giving speeding ticket. negative punishment= taking away driving privileges.

continous reinforcement

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

omission training

removal of a rewarding consequence that follows a voluntary behavior thereby decreasing the probability the behavior will be repeated

Wolfgang Kohler

researcher who studied insight learning in chimps. (banana with stick, insight to use stick)

ratio schedule

rewards subjects after a certain number of responses

interval schedule

rewards subjects after a certain time interval

3 elements of helplessness

stability, globality, internality. stability: persons belief that helplessness comes from a permanent characteristic. globality: "im just dumb" internality: failure lies within

primary reinforcer

stimulus that is naturally rewarding, such as food or water

John Garcia

taste aversion (becoming ill after seafood would most likely cause you to develop a taste aversion for sea food)

Modeling

the behavior of others increases the chances that we will do the same thing.

mental practice

the cognitive rehearsal of a physical skill in the absence of overt physical movements

extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response

external locus of control

the perception that chance or outside forces determine your fate.

internal locus of control

the perception that you control your own fate

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

behavior modification

the use of operant-conditioning techniques to eliminate unwanted behaviors and replace them with desirable ones.

disadvantages of punishment

unwanted side effects such as; fear, aggression, rage, or anger toward the punisher, and avoid the punisher

violence-viewing effect

viewing media violence leads to increase in aggressive behavior

What is an example of classical conditioning in humans?

when the sight of a dog has been associated with a memory of being bitten, the result may be a conditioned fear of dogs.