Chapters 4, 6, 8 MGMT 2130

Open Skills

Linked to a more general learning principle, an example is a customer service skills training where there is not a single way to handle an angry customer, but specific principles do apply. Open skills are more difficult to train than closed skills because they require the trainee to determine how the skills can be adapted and used in their work environment.

Hyperlinks

Links that allow trainees to access other websites that include printed materials as well as communications links to experts, trainers, and other learners.

Verbal Persuasion

Offering words of encouragement to convince others they can learn

Theory of Identical Elements

Proposes that transfer of training occurs when what is being learned in the training session is identical to what the trainee has to perform on the job. Transfer will be maximized the more closely related the training environment is to the work environment.

Key Behaviors

Refer to behaviors that can be used successfully in a wide variety of situations.

Success Cases or Stories

Refer to concrete examples of the impact of training that show how learning has led to the results the company finds worthwhile.

Threats to Validity

Refer to factors that will lead an evaluator to question either the believability of the study results or the extent to which the evaluation results are generalizable to other groups of trainees and situations.

Self-Assessments

Refer to learners estimates of how much they know or have learned from training, tests and quizzes rather than self-assessments are the preferred measure of learning.

External Conditions

Refer to processes in the learning environment, as well as opportunities to practice and receive feedback and reinforcement. The external conditions should directly influence the design or form of instruction.

Internal Conditions

Refer to processes within the learner that must be present for learning to occur, such as how information is registered, stored in memory, and recalled.

Virtual Worlds

Refer to thee computer based simulated, online, 3 dimensional representations of the real world where learning programs can be hosted.

Reaction Outcomes

Refer to trainees perceptions of the program, including the facilities, trainers and content, these are often referred to as "class" or "instructor evaluations". (Table 6.1, p.253)

Closed Skills

Refer to training objectives that are linked to learning specific skills that are to be identically produced by the trainee on the job.

Dashboard

Refers to a computer interface designed to receive and analyze the data from departmts within the company to provide information to managers and other decision-makers within the company.

Comparison Group

Refers to a group of employees who participate in the evaluation study but do not attend the training program (Control Group). The comparison groups demographics should be as similar as possible to the trainees.

Reversal

Refers to a period of time in which participants no longer receive the training intervention.

Self-Management

Refers to a person's attempt to control certain aspects of decision making and behavior. Training programs should prepare employees to self-manage their use of new skills and behaviors on the job. (page 187)

Blog

Refers to a webpage where an author posts entries and readers often can comment.

Wiki

Refers to a website that allows many users to create, edit, and update content and share knowledge.

Past Accomplishments

Refers to allowing employees to build a history of successful accomplishments.

Plug-In

Refers to an additional software that needs to be loaded onto the computer to listen or watch media. Plug-ins can be expensive because they may require the company to pay licensing fees, they can also affect how the computer processes tasks. If trainees experience delays due to the plug-ins, this may result in them losing interest and tuning out of the training.

Summative Evaluation

Refers to an evaluation conducted to determine the extent to which trainees have changed as a result of participating in the training program.

Rapid Prototyping

Refers to an iterative process in which initial design ideas are proposed and provided in rough form in an online working prototype that is reviewed and refined by design team members and key learning stakeholders.

Random Assignment

Refers to assigning employees to the training or comparison group on the basis of chance alone without consideration of individual differences.

Shared Media

Refers to audio or video such as YouTube that can be accessed and shared with others.

Return On Investment (ROI)

Refers to comparing the training's monetary benefits with the cost of training. ROI is referred to as level 5 evaluation (Table 6.1) p.258 for term. To calculate the ROI you - training costs from the benefits, divide by the costs, and multiply by 100.

Big Data

Refers to complex data sets developed by compiling data across different organizational systems including marketing and sales, human resources, finance, accounting, customer service, etc.

Avatar

Refers to computer depictions of humans that are used ass imaginary coaches, coworkers, customers, and instructors.

Training Administration

Refers to coordinating activities before, during and after the program, this includes: Communicating courses and programs to employees, Enrolling employees in programs, preparing and processing any pretraining materials, preparing materials that will be used, arranging for training facility and providing testing equipment that will be used, etc. ( p 187/188)

Criterion Deficiency

Refers to failure to measure training outcomes that were emphasized in the training objectives.

Gratifying

Refers to feedback that the learner receives as a result of using learning content. Feedback is necessary to allow the learner to adapt responses so they are more appropriate.

Serious Games

Refers to games in which the training content is turned into a game but has business objectives.

Error Management Training

Refers to giving trainees opportunities to make errors during training and instructing them that errors can help learning. For errors to have a positive influence on learning, trainees need to be taught to use errors as a chance to learn.

Learner Control

Refers to giving trainees the option to learn actively through self -pacing, excersizes, exploring links to other material, and conversations with other trainees and experts.

Communities of Practice (COP's)

Refers to groups of employees who work together, learn from each other, and develop a common understanding of how to get work done. COP's involve face to face or electronic interaction.

Metacognition

Refers to individual control over ones thinking, examples are monitoring and control, research shows that metacognition including self-regulation, promotes learning.

Learner-Instructor Interaction

Refers to interaction between the learner and the expert (trainer). Trainers can facilitate learning by presenting, demonstrating and reinforcing content.

Performance Orientation

Refers to learners who focus on task performance and how they compare to others, they define success as high performance relative to others

Adaptive Training

Refers to learning that customizes or adapts the content presented to the trainee based on their learning style, ability, personality, or performance.

Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs)

Refers to learning that is designed to enroll large number of learners (massive), it is free and accessible to anyone with an internet connection (open), it takes place online using videos of lectures, interactive coursework including discussion groups, and wikis (online), and it has specific start and completion dates, quizzes and assessment, and exams (courses).

Automatization

Refers to making the performance, recall of knowledge, or demonstration of a skill so automatic that it requires little thought or attention.

Presence

Refers to perceptions of actually being in a particular environment. Presence is influenced by the amount of sensory information available to the trainee, control over the environment, and the ability to modify the environment.

Microblog or Microsharing

Refers to software tools such as Twitter that enable communications in short bursts of text, links, and multimedia either through stand-alone applications or through online communities or social networks.

Perception

Refers to the ability to organize the message from the environment so that it can be processed and acted upon. page 173/174 (table 4.4)

Semantic Encoding

Refers to the actual coding process of incoming messages. (Table 4.4)

Overall Task Complexity

Refers to the degree to which a task requires a number of distinct behaviors, the number of choices involved in performing the task and the degree of uncertainty in performing the task.

Mental Requirements

Refers to the degree to which the task requires the subject to use or demonstrate mental skills or cognitive skills or abilities to perform the task.

Reliability

Refers to the degree to which trainees' performance on the outcome actually reflects true differences in performance.

Practicality

Refers to the ease with which the outcome measures can be collected. One reason companies give for not including learning, performance, and behavior outcomes in their evaluation of training programs is that collecting them is too burdensome.

Criterion Contamination

Refers to the extent that training outcomes measure inappropriate capabilities or are affected by extraneous conditions. page 259

Fidelity

Refers to the extent to which the training environment is similar to the work environment.

Criteria Relevance

Refers to the extent to which training outcomes are related to the learned capabilities emphasized in the training program. The learned capabilities required to succeed in the training program should be the same as those required to be successful on the job.

Goal Orientation

Refers to the goals held by a trainee in a learning situation. Goal orientation can include a Learning Orientation or a Performance Orientation. Goal orientation is believed to affect thee amount of effort that a trainee will expend in learning.

Interactive Distance Learning (IDL)

Refers to the latest generation of distance learning, which uses satellite technology to broadcast programs to different locations and allows trainees to respond to questions posed during the training program using a keypad

Self-Regulation

Refers to the learners involvement with the training material and assessing their progress towards learning. Learners who engage in self-regulation are more likely to learn more effectively.

Expectancy

Refers to the mental state that the learner brings to the instructional process. page 173 and 174 (Table 4.4)

Practice

Refers to the physical or mental rehearsal of a task, knowledge, or skill to achieve proficiency in performing the task or skill or demonstrating the knowledge.

Training Context

Refers to the physical, intellectual, and emotional environment in which the training occurs.

Workforce Analytics

Refers to the practice of using quantitative methods and scientific methods to analyze data from human resource databases, corporate financial statements, employee surveys, etc. to make evidence-based decisions and show that human resources practices influence important company metrics.

Return on Expectations (ROE)

Refers to the process through which evaluation demonstrates to key business stakeholders, such as top-level managers, that their expectations about training have been satisfied.

Objective

Refers to the purpose and expected outcome of the training.

Climate for Transfer

Refers to trainees' perceptions about a wide variety of characteristics of the work environment that facilitate or inhibit the use of trained skills or behavior.

Cognitive Strategies

Regulate the process of learning. They relate to the learner's decision regarding what information to attend to, how to remember, and how to solve problems

Working Storage

Rehearsal and repetition of information occur, allowing material to be coded for memory. Working storage is limited to the amount of material that can be processed at any one time. (Table 4.4)

Learning Orientation

Relates to trying to increase ability of competence in a task. People with a learning orientation believe that training success is defined as showing improvement and making progress, prefer trainers who are more interested in how trainees are learning than in how they are performing.

Organizing

Requires the learner to find similarities and themes in the training material.

Elaboration

Requires the trainee to relate the training material to other, more familiar knowledge, skills, or behaviors. Trainees will use a combination of these strategies to learn and the "best" strategy depends on the learning outcome.

Boosters

Retrieval opportunities that can help the learner's brain consider training information as important and help retain it. The book gave examples of tests during the training.

Table 8.2 (page 336)

Shows "New technologies used for training"

Figure 8.2 (page 338)

Shows a flow chart with different types of LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS.

Expectancy Theory

Suggests that a person's behavior is based on three factors: Expectancy, Instrumentality, and Valence.

Stimulus Generalization Approach

Suggests that the way to understand the transfer of training issue is to construct training so that the most important features or general principles are emphasized.

Lapses

Take place when the trainee uses previously learned, less effective capabilities instead of trying to apply the capability emphasized in the training program.

Web 2.0

Technologies which include Social Networking, Blogs, Wikis, and Microblogs such as Twitter.

Expert systems

Technology (usually software) that organizes and applies the knowledge of human experts to specific problems. These systems have 3 elements: A knowledge base that contains facts, figures and rules, A decision-making capability that imitates an experts reasoning ability, and a user interface that gathers and gives information to the person using the system. They are used as support tools

Learning Management System (LMS)

Technology platform that automates the administration, development and delivery of a company's training program

Internal Validity

The believability of study results, which can be impacted by outcome measures, and the persons in the evaluation study. page 263

Training Effectiveness

The benefits that the company and the trainees received from the training which may include learning new skills or behaviors benefits for the company may include increased sales and more satisfied customers.

Evaluation design

The collecting of information including the what when how and from whom that will be used to determine the effectiveness of the training program

Physical Requirements

The degree to which the task requires the person to use or demonstrate physical skills and abilities to complete the task.

External Validity

The generalizability of the study results to other groups and situations.

Training outcomes or criteria

The measures that the trainer and the company use to evaluate training programs

Bandwidth

The number of bytes and bits (information) that can travel between computers per second. Graphics, photos, animation, etc can be slow to download and can "crash" a system. Online learning should be designed considering the available bandwidth of the company's system.

Part Practice

The objective or task is practiced individually as soon as each is introduced in the training program.

Training evaluation

The process of collecting the outcomes needed to determine whether training is effective

Pilot testing

The process of previewing the training program with potential trainees and managers or with customers

Maintenance

The process of trainees continuing to use what they have learned over time

Rehearsal

The simplest learning strategy, focuses on learning through repetition.

Far Transfer

The stimulus generation approach emphasizes far transfer, which refers to the trainees ability to apply learned capabilities to the work environment even though the work environment is not identical to that of the training session.`

Digital Collaboration

The use of technology to enhance and extend employee's abilities to work together regardless of their geographic proximity, this includes electronic messaging systems, electronic meeting systems, online communities of learning organized by subject, blah, blah blah

Valence

The value that a person places on the outcome, how important is the outcome, or goal of the training (reward)

Benefits

The value that the company gains from the training program.

Overlearning

Trainees continue to practice after they are able to perform the objective several times. This helps the trainee become more comfortable using new knowledge and skills and increases the amount of time the trainee will retain the knowledge, skill, or behavior.

Instruction

Trainers manipulation of the environment in order to help trainees learn.

Synchronous Communication

Trainers, experts, and learners interact with each other live and in real time, the same way they would in face-to-face classroom instruction. Technologies like video teleconferencing and live online courses make this possible.

Mobile Learning

Training delivered using a mobile device such as a smartphone, netbook, notebook computer, or iPad

Transfer of Training Theory

Transfer of Training is more likely to occur when the trainee works on tasks during training that are very similar, if not identical to the work environment they are in.

Post-Training Measure

A measure of the outcome after the training. By comparing the baseline pretraining results with the post-training results you can determine if learning has occurred and to what extent/degree.

Self-Efficacy

A person's judgment about whether he or she can successfully learn knowledge and skills

Learning

A relatively permanent change in human capabilities that can include knowledge, skills, attitudes, behaviors and competencies that are not the result of growth processes

Generalization

A trainees ability to apply what they learned to on the job work problems and situations that are similar but not necessarily identical to those problems and situations encountered in the learning environment

Self-Evaluation

A type of "learning data" regarding courses taken and training effectiveness, see page 281

Flipped Classroom

A type of Blended Learning which blends online and face to face instruction. Learners watch lectures, complete online simulations, read books and articles, take quizzes to assess their knowledge and skills, and come to class to work on projects and cases, hear speakers and interact with faculty.

Cost Benefit Analysis

A way to calculate the ROI. The analysis is the process of determining the economic benefits of a training program using accounting methods that look at training costs and benefits. pages 273-275

Pretraining Measure (Pretests and Post-tests)

A way to improve the internal validity of the study results is to first establish a baseline (Pretraining) measure of the outcome.

Adult Learning Theory (Andragogy)

Adults have the need to know why they are learning, to be self-directed, can bring more work-related experiences into the learning situation, enter the learning environment with a problem-centered approach to learning, are motivated to learn by both intrinsic and extrinsic motivators. (table 4.2 p.168)

Whole Practice

All tasks or objectives are practiced at the same time.

Pretest/Post-Test

An evaluation design in which both pretraining and post-training outcome measures are collected. There is no comparison group which makes it difficult to rule out the effects of business conditions or other factors as explanations for changes. p.267

Time Series

An evaluation design in which training outcomes are collected at periodic intervals both before and after training. The strength of this design can be improved by using reversal where the employees go through a time period without training intervention.

Asynchronous Communication

Any type of electronic communication, such as e-mail, blogs, or Facebook wall postings, in which the sender and receiver are not required to be online at the same time. Communication in which timing is out of sync; there is a time delay between when you send a message and when it is received. Non-real-time interactions.

Cognitive Outcomes

Are used to determine the degree to which trainees are familiar with the principles, facts, techniques, procedures, and processes emphasized in the training program. Cognitive outcomes measure what knowledge trainees learned in the program.

Results Outcomes

Are used to determine the training program's payoff for the company. Examples of results outcomes include increased production and reduced costs related to employee turnover rates of top talent, accidents, and equipment downtime, as well as improvements in product quality or customer service.

Goal Setting Theory

Assumes that behavior results from a person's conscious goals and intentions. Goals influence a person's behavior by directing energy and attention, sustaining effort over time, and motivating the person to develop strategies for goal attainment. Research indicates Specific & Challenging goals result in better performance than vague and unchallenging goals.

Podcasts

Audio or video program content distributed in episodes using software such as RSS

Motor Skills

Coordination of physical movements. Example of a telephone repair man being physically able to climb up a telephone pole.

Indirect Costs

Costs not directly related to the design, development or delivery of the training program. These include general office supplies, facilities, equipment, etc.

Solomon Four-Group

Design combines the pretest/post-test comparison group and the post-test-only control group design. This design controls for most threats to internal and external validity.

Post-Test Only

Design refers to an evaluation in which only post-training outcomes are collected. This design can be strengthened by adding a comparison group. This design is appropriate when the trainees can be expected to have similar levels of knowledge, behaviors, or results outcomes.

Repurposing

Directly translating an instructor-led, face-to-face training program to an online format. Online learning that merely repurposes an ineffective training program will still result in ineffective training.

Reinforcement Theory

Emphasizes that people are motivated to perform or avoid certain behaviors because of past outcomes that have resulted from those behaviors

Need Theories

Help explain the value that a person places on certain outcomes, these are related to Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs and Alderfer (p.166)

Near Transfer

Identical elements theory is particularly relevant in making sure near transfer occurs, which refers to trainees ability to apply learned capabilities exactly to the work situation.

Affective Outcomes

Include attitudes and motivations affective outcomes include tolerance for diversity Employee Engagement motivation to learn safety attitudes and customer service orientation.

Direct Costs

Include salaries and benefits for all employees involved in training, including trainees, instructors, consultants, and employees who design the program, materials and supplies, etc.

Verbal Information

Includes names or labels, facts, and bodies of knowledge and specialized knowledge that employees need in their jobs

Spaced Practice

Individuals are given rest intervals within practice sessions. Spaced practice is superior to massed practice in general.

Feedback

Information about how well people are meeting the training objectives.

E-Learning

Learning that takes place via electronic media such web and computer-based training (CBT)

Skill based outcomes

Used to assess the level of technical or motor skills and behaviors skills-based outcomes include acquisition or learning of skills and use of skills on the job.

Virtual Classroom

Using a computer and the Internet to distribute instructor-led training to geographically dispersed employees, advantages would be cost-savings and convenience.

Electronic Performance Support System (EPSS)

an electronic infrastructure that captures, stores, and distributes individual and corporate knowledge assets throughout an organization to enable individuals to achieve required levels of performance in the fastest possible time with minimal support from other people.

Apps

software applications for use on smartphones and tablets and are primarily used to supplement training, manage the path or sequence of training, and to help employees maintain training records.

Transfer of Training

trainees effectively and continually applying what they have learned in training to their jobs

Distance Training

used by geographically dispersed companies to provide information about new products, policies, or procedures as well as to deliver skills training and expert lectures to field locations.

Continuous Learning

A learning system in which employees are required to understand the entire work system including the relationships among their jobs, their work units, and the company. Also, employees are expected to acquire new skills and knowledge, apply them on the job, and share this information with fellow workers.

Instrumentality

A belief that performing a given behavior is associated with a particular outcome. ie-going to training will help you perform your job better.

Attitudes

A combination of beliefs and feelings that predispose a person to behave a certain way

Virtual Reality

A computer based technology that provides trainees with a three-dimensional learning experience.

Utility Analysis

A cost-benefit analysis method that involves assessing the dollar value of training based on estimates of the difference in job performance between trained and untrained employees, the number of individuals trained , the length of training time, etc.

Need

A deficiency that a person is experiencing at any point in time.

Cognitive Theory of Transfer

Based on the information processing theory of learning which is related to the storage and retrieval of information. The likelihood of transfer depends on the trainee's ability to retrieve learned capabilities and this theory suggests that the likelihood of transfer is increased by providing trainees with meaningful material that enhances the chances that they will link what they learn with what they encounter in the work environment.

Generalizing

Being able to adapt the learning for use in similar, but not identical situations (Table 4.4)

Expectancy (Expectancies)

Beliefs about the link between trying to perform a behavior and actually performing well, similar to Self-Efficacy.

Blended Learning

Combines online learning, face-to-face instruction, and other methods for distributing learning content and instruction

Information Processing Theory

Compared to other theories they give more emphasis to the internal processes that occur when training content is learned and retained. The process goes STIMULUS-RECEPTORS-SENSORY REGISTER-SHORT TERM MEMORY-CODED/TRANSFORMED-LONG-TERM MEMORY-RESPONSE GENERATOR-EFFECTORS. (Figure 4.4 page 169)

Intellectual skills

Concepts and rules, which are critical to solve problems, serve customers, and create products

Massed Practice

Conditions are those in which individuals practice a task continuously, without resting and involves trainees completing practice exercises at one time within a lesson or class vs. distributing the exercises within the lesson.

Social Learning Theory

Emphasizes that people learn by observing other persons (modeling) whom they believe are credible and knowledgeable. Four processes are involved in learning: Attention, Retention, motor reproduction, and motivational processes

Online Learning

Enables learners to interact with the training content and other learners and to decide how they want to learn. These features include content, collaboration, and sharing, links to resources, learner control, delivery, and administration.

Formative evaluation

Evaluation of training that takes place during program design and development and insurers that the training program is well-organized and runs smoothly and that the trainees learn and are satisfied with the program

The Learning Cycle

Four stages- Concrete Experience, Reflective Observation, Abstract Conceptualization, and Active Experimentation. The key to effective learning is to be competent in all four stages.

Computer Based Training (CBT), Online Learning, E-Learning, Web-Based Training

Instruction and delivery of training by computer through the internet or the web. This can include and integrate into instruction text, interaction using simulations and games, and video, and collaboration using blogs, wikis, and social networks, and hyperlinks to additional resources. In some cases, CBT is provided as stand alone using software or DVD's with no connection to the internet. Trainees can interact with content, answer questions, but they cannot collaborate with other learners. page 340

Web-Based Training

Instruction via the Internet that enables individuals to learn in a structure that is self-paced and self-directed while interacting and collaborating with other students and the instructor via a conferencing system

Human Capital Management

Integrates training with all aspects of the human resource function to determine how training dollars are spent and how training expenses translate into business dollars for the company

Learner-Learner Interaction

Interaction between learners, with or without an instructor.

Modeling

Involves having employees who already have mastered the learning outcomes demonstrate them for trainees

Reflection

Involves having trainees spend a short amount of time such as fifteen minutes, reviewing and writing about what they learned and how they performed.

Retrieval

Involves identifying learned material in long-term memory and using it to influence performance. (table 4.4)

Webcasting or Web conferencing

Involves instruction that is provided Involves instruction that is provided online through live broadcasts, this helps to spread the sales force training throughout the year rather than cramming it into twice a year sales meetings.

Logical Verification

Involves perceiving a relationship between a new task and a task already mastered. Example of managers reminding employees of their abilities to complete a similar task when they are dealing with learning difficulties.

Pretest/Post-Test with Comparison Group

Kind of describes itself, includes pre and post-training results along with a comparison group.

Learner-Content Interaction

Means the learner acts with the training content, web books, etc