Chapters 7-10

What event paved the way for school desegregation in the U.S.? How well has school desegregation worked?

-1954 Brown v. Board of Education: Supreme court ruled that separate did not mean equal Segregated public education violated minority group children's right to equal protection of the law Public schools were desegregated -Social scientists thought it would work and see results immediately -Research since then shows desegregation had inconsistent effects -Students often re-segregate themselves (e.g., via seating choices at lunch or are re-segregated by school officials (e.g., via tracking) -However, more encouraging results when long-term effects are assessed

Describe the jigsaw classroom and how it incorporates some of the conditions needed to make intergroup contact effective in reducing prejudice.

-3 hours a week in a classroom for 6 weeks -Divide classroom into heterogeneous groups -Within each group, give each student one part of a lesson (a piece of the puzzle) -Each piece necessary and important -Test each student on the entire lesson (must get the other pieces to the puzzle) -Students teach each other their parts of the lesson -Necessitates interdependence -Each student's part (piece) is equally important→ promotes equal status -Need to rely on one another Increased liking for, and reliance on, classmates -Reduced prejudice and increased interracial friendships -Enhanced self esteem and academic achievement, especially for the minorities

explicit awareness develops by

-3 years of age for gender categories -4 of 5 years of age for the categories of White and Black -Between 5 and 9 of age for other racial categories, such a Native American, Chinese, and Latino

What is relative deprivation theory?

-Addresses the questions of how people become dissatisfied with some aspect of their lives and how they react to that dissatisfaction with some aspect of their lives and how they react to that dissatisfaction -People become dissatisfied if they either compare their current situation to similar situations they had experienced in the past or compare themselves to other people currently in their situation and as a result decide that they lack some resource that they deserve to have -Not objectively deprived, but feel deprived relative to what they had in the past or relative to people who have the resource they believe they deserve -Social comparison -Relation to prejudice comes from how people respond to feelings of deprivation: if people blame another group for causing the deprivation, they come to dislike that group and its members -Feelings of low distributive justice

What is stereotype lift? Have you ever experienced or observed it?

-Awareness of the diagnostic purpose of a test can provide a performance boost for members of non-stereotyped groups

BIRG'ing

-Basking in Reflected Glory -To enhance self esteem present oneself as connected with successful people -ex: when football team wins everyone wears school sweatshirt

self-esteem hypothesis

-Because self esteem is derived, in part, from social identities, people are motivated to achieve and maintain positive social identities (see slide after next) -Research support - e.g., positive correlation between self-esteem and intergroup bias and threats to self-esteem motivate intergroup bias

What is discrimination? How strongly are measures of it correlated to prejudice? What factors influence the relationship?

-Behavior, deals with how people act toward members of other groups -Consists of behaving differently toward people based on their membership in a social group -Can be positive or negative -Positive correlation: if more prejudice more likely to partake in discriminations -Factors that influence correlation -Personal stereotype -Perceived social support -Attitude-behavior correspondence

Describe blatant, subtle, microaggressions, and covert forms of discrimination.

-Blatant discrimination: consists of unequal and harmful treatment...that is typically intentional and quite visible Ex: racial discrimination at work, school, and public accommodations (illegal) -Subtle discrimination: consists of unequal and harmful treatment...that is typically less visible and obvious than blatant discrimination. It is often unnoticed because people have internalized subtle discriminatory behaviors as normal, natural, or customary -Often unintentional Can take active and passive forms Ex: Hostile humor, controlling talk, vanishing, abnormalization -Microaggressions: small-scale, everyday verbal and nonverbal behaviors that demean other social groups or individual members of those groups -Usually lacks hostility, but multiple negatively affect Ex: not sitting next to a minority on a bus Ex: denial of belongingness, assumptions of criminality or dangerousness, assumptions of inferiority, assumptions of the correctness of stereotypes and traditional roles, denial of individuality -Covert discrimination: consists of unequal and harmful treatment...that is hidden, purposeful, and, often, maliciously motivated...it is behavior that consciously attempts to ensure failure, as in hiring or other employment situations -Tokenism, housing market

Why do you suppose that in high school the majority of students report having positive cross-race interactions at school, but less than half report having positive interactions outside of school?

-Cannot avoid cross-racial interactions at school -Outside of school make own social choices, which could allow prejudices to take over and discourage cross-racial interactions

doll technique

-Children presented with pictures or dolls and asked to classify them into social categories or sort which ones "belong together" ...explicit (conscious) awareness of social categories

What is implicit awareness of social categories? How has it been assessed with infants?

-Children use social categories without being able to verbalize the differences explicitly -Assess this by showing infants photographs and taking note of which face they stare longer at

Describe racial discrimination in the work place.

-Compared to white workers, black workers are -Seen as having less potential for promotion -Less likely to be promoted -Wait longer for promotion -Paid less in jobs with equivalent levels of authority -Sticky floor effect -e.g., when black people get management positions they are assigned to manage other black people, who tend to be in low level jobs -These results may be explained, in part, by the shifting standards model- decision makers may assume that evaluations of women or minorities were made with lower standards

Describe hate crimes. Who most often commits them?

-Criminal offenses (mostly violent crimes) about which there is evidence that the victims were chosen because of their race, ethnicity, national origin, religion, disability, or sexual orientation -Motivation only to attack a member of a particular group -Most are violent -Offenders most often young males

psychological disengagement

-Defensive detachment of self-esteem from outcomes in a particular domain -De-emphasizing the importance of success in a particular domain

How do people react to having acted in a prejudiced manner? What conditions bring about the most discomfort? What effect does acting in a prejudiced manner have on future motivation?

-Depends on type of prejudice Experience discomfort: People low in prejudice tend to feel guilty -People high in prejudice tend to feel angry at others -Greatest guilt is felt when People are high in internal motivation to control prejudice -They become aware of their prejudiced responses by themselves or by being told by ingroup members -The guilt tends to motivate people, especially those who have non-prejudiced self-images, to act in a non-prejudiced manner in the future

stereotype fit hypothesis

-Designed to explain why women hold fewer managerial or executive positions than do men -Characteristics associated with effective managers are very similar to cultural stereotypes of men and very different than the cultural stereotypes of women -evidence of a similar disadvantage for black people and hispanics

What is the stereotype fit hypothesis and how might it explain why women hold fewer managerial and executive positions that men?

-Designed to explain why women hold fewer managerial or executive positions than do men -Characteristics associated with effective managers are very similar to cultural stereotypes of men and very different than the cultural stereotypes of women -Thus, men are seen as better suited for jobs like business manager and women are seen as better suited for jobs like secretary or nurse -There is evidence of a similar disadvantage for black people and hispanic people

7. What has generally been shown with regard to the onset of White children's racial attitudes?

-Development of prejudice depends on amount of interaction with minorities -For those with little contact: Slightly prejudiced at a young age (2-4) and then steady increase in prejudice as they got older -For those with contact: Again slightly prejudiced at a young age (2-4) but then only a slight increase until ages 5-7 and finally a decrease as they got older

What does it mean to say a group is stigmatized? What factors distinguish between harmful and benign stigmas?

-Differ from privileged or dominant groups in appearance or behavior - sometime referred to as "marked" -Have a character that is devalued by the dominant group -Harmful vs. benign stigmas -Course -Concealability -Aesthetic qualities -Origin -danger

Read the opening quotation for the chapter (p. 261). In what way are your own childhood experiences similar or different?

-Different neighborhoods of San Francisco deemed not as safe Hunter's point: majority African-American, impoverished, a lot of homeless people -Always heard not to go there, never questioned it -Adults would roll up windows and lock doors when drive through -In high school did a volunteer day there and learned a lot about the neighborhood and poverty, and felt awful judging the neighborhood

How might discrimination in the workplace be explained in term of intergroup respect?

-Discrimination in the workplace may be influenced more by the amount of respect that decision makers have for a group than by stereotypes held about the group -Respect -Feelings of esteem for another entailing both valuing the person's feelings, thoughts, and behaviors, and being willing to be influenced by that person -Respect for various groups based on the amount of power the groups have in society -Research support from two correlational studies and an experiment

Why do people leave hate groups?

-Disenchantment with the group's ideology or tactics (such as violence) -The pull of social relationships outside the group

A key component of social identity theory is self categorization. What factors increase self categorization?

-Distinctiveness -Feelings of uncertainty about one's attitudes, beliefs, and perceptions -Optimal distinctiveness: people are most likely to identify with groups that satisfy needs for both personal and group identity -Threat to group -Chronic social identities -Individual differences

What has the study of intergroup behavior shown with regard to preferences and avoidance of others?

-Elementary school: Intergroup behavior depends in part on the situation Strong same-race bias in the playground and other informal settings Less same-race bias in classroom Gender differences Girl stronger same-race bias than boys -High School: Avoidance of contact (both for white, black, and asian students) Somewhat more cross-racial contact in school than off campus

How do cognitive development theories explain the development of prejudice in children?

-Emphasize the interplay between children's mental development and their environments -Hold that prejudice is qualitatively different across stages of development as a result of reorganization of underlying cognitive structures -Piaget -Aboud -Social learning theory

What research methods have been used to study discrimination in hiring? What has been found?

-Employment audit- members of two groups are matched on appearance, education, and experience, and then are sent to apply for the same job -Matched mailed-in resumes

Describe gender discrimination in promotions

-Even though women and men receive, on average, equal job performance ratings, women are Viewed as having less potential for promotion -Wait longer for promotions Receive fewer promotions, especially high level promotions -Ironically, the male advantage in promotion is greater in female-dominated occupations - glass escalator

How does genetic theory explain the development of prejudice in children? What evidence support the theory?

-Fear of strangers- protection from harm by outsiders -Prejudice determined in part from genetic makeup -Support from twin studies: If you have identical twins, both show same preferences

Describe student teams and how the technique incorporates some to the conditions needed to make intergroup contact effective in reducing prejudice.

-For intergroup contact to work, authorities must be on board and supportive -Use competition to encourage interdependence and intergroup contact -Divided class into heterogeneous academic teams -Individuals on each team compete against individuals from other teams -Group members help one another prepare, fostering interdependence -Evaluations show positive effects -Increased interracial friendships -Enhanced academic performance, especially for minorities -Difference between desegregation and integration, and this focuses on integration -Criticism: harmony within group, but could have ill feelings towards other groups -To fix this constantly change the groups, so everyone is in your ingroup at one point

Why does PGDD Occur? -- Cognitive Explanations

-Group examples more readily come to mind, and are easier to process, than is individual information (including information about the self) -Different standards of comparison - compare own experiences with members of one's own group but compare the experience of one's group with other groups -People tend to associate discrimination with acts that are rare and severe

Hate crime have greater effect on victims than do ordinary crimes. What are these greater effects?

-Hate crime victims suffer more severe psychological consequences for longer periods of time than do victims of similar crimes not motivated by bias -Chosen at random (w/in their social group) -Feel that nothing can be done to avoid becoming a victim again -Secondary victimization -Psychological effects not only for the victim but also for members of the victim's group -Fear of becoming victims themselves

What are hate groups? How have they been researched? What are some myths about them?

-Hate group: an organization whose central principles include hostility toward racial, ethnic, and religious minority groups -Research with ethnographic studies -Myth: members of hate group members as poor and uneducated (Actually middle class and well-educated) -Myth: impossible to leave hate groups, violent

What does evidence show with regard to the origins of gender-based prejudice in young children?What does evidence show with regard to the gender-based prejudice in older children?

-Infants younger than 2 years-old have visual preference for gender stereotyped toys -In most western cultures same-sex preferences emerge at about 3 or 4 years of age -Homosociality: tendency to interact only with members of one's own sex -Gender-based prejudice emerges at age 3 and is strong by 4 -Gender Prejudice in Older Children: -Shift in gender attitudes -4 year olds dislike tomboys (girls that act with boy interests) the most -8 year olds dislike sissies (boys that act with girl interests) the most -Traditionally gender-typed girls liked the most -After age 8 other-gender prejudice declines slightly (as heterosexual interests begin)

Describe anti-bias education. Is it effective in reducing prejudice?

-Instruct students about the nature of bias, its history, and its current forms and effects -Multiple methods: Lectures Media presentations Role-playing (e.g., blue/brown eyes exercise) Class discussions -Review of studies indicates that it is generally effective

What are the three types of threat that comprise integrated threat theory?

-Intergroup anxiety -Perceptions of realistic threats -Perceptions of symbolic threats

Describe motivation to control prejudice. What are its various types?

-Internal motivation: personal belief system that prejudice is wrong -External motivation: result of social pressure -Restraint motivation -Social norms

What might inhibit someone who is motivated to commit a hate crime from actually doing so?

-Lack of opportunity -Fear of negative consequences -Belief in nonviolence -Knowing someone in the outgroup

How does social learning theory explain the development of prejudice in children? According to social learning theory what is the key to the development of authoritarian personalities and social dominance orientation?

-Learning results from direct teaching, modeling, and vicarious learning -Prejudice not usually necessarily directly taught (besides hate groups) because not socially acceptable -Indirect learning from sources, such as parents, peers, media, and school programs -Influence of child rearing -Authoritarianism might be acquired from strict and punitive parents -No clear research support -Social dominance orientation - cold, unaffectionate child rearing practices might cause children to see the world as a competitive jungle and desire

What has been found with regard to discrimination in performance evaluations? What factors seem to bring this discrimination about?

-Little gender discrimination -Discrimination comes farther down the line (when it comes to promotions) -Compared to white employees, black employees -Receive lower evaluations -Are less likely rated as outstanding leaders -Factors that could adversely affect minority group member's job performance -Lost opportunities effect - less accepted and given less support and encouragement -Mistreatment (e.g., being ignored, being joked about) may lower morale

What is the outgroup homogeneity effect? Can you think of examples of it?

-Members of an outgroup are all the same, but members of an ingroup are diverse -Stereotypes are prominent here -Weyant: view all asian people as looking the same, but can distinguish between white people -Heterosexual people view all gay men as feminine and flamboyant

What is stigma by association? Can you think of an example?

-Members of dominant groups who associate with members of stigmatized groups may themselves become stigmatized by the dominant group -Ex: those who are friends with lesbian and gay people could be stigmatized as becoming gay or lesbian just based on friendship

What is attributional ambiguity? What consequence can it have? Have you ever experienced it?

-Members of stigmatized groups often find it difficult to interpret feedback from dominant groups members, because it is hard to know whether such feedback is based on -Their actual ability or achievement -Or bias on the part of the dominant group members, which could be negative or positive (from feelings of sympathy or desire on the part of the dominant group member to appear unbiased) -Consistent with the notion of attribution ambiguity, black participants tended to discount positive feedback (i.e., attributed it to prejudice) when it came from a white person who could see them -Ex: male talking to woman, but cannot tell if he is actually interested in her as a person or if he wants something out of her....if give him attention female could feel bad

male-female intergroup behavior

-Observational studies reveal that same-sex preferences begin early (2½ years) and are stable by 4 years -Sociometric ratings also indicate same-sex preference -Mixed-gender friendships are infrequent from 3rd to 12th grade, but increase slightly beginning in junior high

What is optimal distinctiveness?

-Optimal distinctiveness: people are most likely to identify with groups that satisfy needs for both personal and group identity -Want to be in one of the better groups, but also want to be one of the best within the group

How have the forced-choice measures been used to measure the development of racial prejudice? What is a potential shortcoming of these measures?

-PRAM II: A child hears a story about a person described with positive or negative adjectives -The child must identify the person in the story from the pictures of two people that are identical, except that one is white and the other is black -Problem- preference for one category does not necessarily mean rejection of (prejudice toward) the other category

What is the personal/group discrimination discrepancy? Why does it occur? Have you ever experienced or observed it?

-People perceive there is greater discrimination against their group as a whole than there is against themselves individually -Reason: Group examples more readily come to mind, and are easier to process, than is individual information (including information about the self) -Different standards of comparison -People tend to associate discrimination with acts that are rare and severe -People want to deny or minimize their own experience with discrimination

An important consequence of discrimination is its relationship with stress. Describe this relationship. How is it manifested? What problems does it pose for minorities?

-People who experience discrimination experience more stress -Black people who completed an achievement test under conditions of stereotype threat had higher blood pressure than black people who took the test under non-threatening conditions -For black people there is a positive correlation between the experience of discrimination and high blood pressure -For gay men there is a positive correlation between the experience of discrimination and psychological distress -Stress can -Undermine the effectiveness of the immune system, making people more vulnerable to disease -Lead to unhealthy ways of coping, such as substance abuse

Relative Gratification

-Perceiving that things are getting better -Studies show that, compared to people who feel that things will stay the same in the future, those feeling both relative deprivation and relative gratification express more prejudice

Why do people join hate groups?

-Person's racial attitudes -Search for answers to problems and questions that have arisen in the person's life

What is the difference between personal and group relative deprivation? Which one is related to prejudice?

-Personal relative deprivation: refers to the degree to which a person feels deprived as an individual -Group relative deprivation: refers to the degree to which a person feels that a group he or she identifies with has been deprived of some benefit, independent of the amount of relative deprivation experienced -Generally group relative deprivation has been found to be related to prejudice -Scapegoat group

What has been generally found with regard to the onset of minority children's racial attitudes?

-Positive attitude toward the majority at a young age (2-4) but these attitudes become more negative over time (as children age) -For minority children amount of contact has no effect on racial attitudes -Attitudes of biracial children (white-black) fall between those of majority and minority children

Characterize the relation between prejudice and discrimination.

-Prejudice: attitude -Discrimination: actions -Moral credentials: say they're not prejudice, so they do not partake in discrimination Ex: apartment owner in video who said he isn't prejudice because he has hispanics in his building (but did not have black)

reducing stereotype threat

-Presenting a test as nondiagnostic -encouragement -exposure to successful role models

How can stereotype threat be reduced?

-Presenting test as nondiagnostic -Encouragement -Exposure to successful role models

Describe multicultural education. Is it effective in reducing prejudice?

-Programs designed to teach students about ethnic, racial, religious, and other groups -Components: History and culture- contributions to society -Education about how cultural assumptions influence the interpretation of events -Development of positive attitudes toward outgroups -Teaching strategies to accommodate different learning styles -Create culture to promote equality -Based on notion that ignorance is the major source of prejudice -Research shows mixed effects

Research supporting social identity theory has included tests of the categorization-competition hypothesis. What is this hypothesis?

-Proposes that categorizing oneself and others into an ingroup and an outgroup is sufficient to generate intergroup competition -Intergroup competition: competition between different groups -Do not even need conflict, just the fact that there are ingroup and outgroups is enough

What is psychological disengagement? Have you ever experienced or observed it?

-Psychological disengagement -Defensive detachment of self-esteem from outcomes in a particular domain -De-emphasizing the importance of success in a particular domain -Ex: I am not artistic, but assume I am not good and do not need it, so I pride myself in intellect or compassion

How are people recruited into hate groups? Once recruited, how are people socialized into hate groups? What are the outcomes of the socialization process?

-Recruiting is usually done by someone the recruit knows -Recruiter is usually someone the recruit trusts and respects -Gradual process -After gaining trust of potential recruits, the recruiter guides conversations toward political issues of general interest, if they appear to be receptive to the group's ideology, the recruiter can guide them to draw on their everyday racism to make such interpretations for themselves, encouraging their commitment to the group's belief system. Finally, the recruiter will invite recruits to a group function to meet other people who think the same way -Socialize members by means of formal and informal education and through participation in rituals -Hate groups try to reinforce the socialization process by isolating members from opposing viewpoints

What is regressive prejudice? Why does it occur? Under what conditions is it most likely to occur?

-Regressive prejudice: even people who want to be unprejudiced sometimes find themselves acting in prejudiced ways -Feel super guilty when they revert back and are then more motivated to change when they have low levels of prejudice -Those with higher levels of prejudice will feel angry and blame social pressure -Mental busyness is a cause -Controllability of behavior -Executive function -Moral credentials

In what ways is being viewed as a "model minority" a double edged sword for Asian Americans?

-Seem to embody "American" values and characteristics - hard work and success -However can cause stress: Sometimes not given individual credit for success -Also a negative stereotype (e.g., appearance, mannerisms, short, poor English speaking ability, unsociable) -Not helped or mentored, because not seen as needing it

What other measures have been used to study the development of prejudice?

-Social distance scale: 5 point scale, vote "definitely yes" or "definitely no" in regards to varying degrees of intimacy with minorities -Observation of intergroup interaction in natural settings (e.g., playground) -Self reports of interaction (could be biased because they want to be seen in a certain light) -Sociometric ratings: identify best friends, or give them a class roster and then participants rate on a scale how much they would want to interact, play, or work with him/her

What are the main tenants of Social Identity Theory? What research paradigm has shown support for it?

-Social identity is the part of a person's self-concept that derives from membership in groups that are important to one's person (Family, college, nation, etc.) -Self-esteem -People are motivated to develop and maintain social identities that are positive and that clearly set their groups apart from others -Perceived attributes and accomplishments of one's group -Minimal group paradigm

features of stereotype threat

-Stems from situational factors that bring a stereotype to mind - can even affect those who do not believe in the stereotype -A general process that can affect any group for which a negative stereotype exists - e.g., women, Latinos, people of low SES -Operates by changing the way information is processed - taxes cognitive resources, such as working memory capacity

Describe motivations to commit hate crimes? Which motivation is most common?

-Thrill seeking - most common -Territorial defense -Retaliation -Mission -Peer group dynamics -norms

What are tokens? What factors influence their lives? What are the consequences of being a token?

-Tokens - individuals in a statistical minority in a particular setting -Factors that influence life -Visbility, contrast, assimilation -Consequences (from Kanter's case study in a Fortune 500 company) -More readily noticed, for both achievements and mistakes -Seen as representative of their group -Feel alone, unwelcomed, and without support

John Duckitt's extension of realistic conflict theory

-Two types of intergroup conflict Between groups of equal power -View outgroup as threatening -Hostility toward members of the outgroup -One group dominates the other -View the outgroup as inferior -Derogate members of the outgroup to justify oppression -Subordinate group's responses to domination -Stable oppression- accepts that the dominant group is superior and is submissive -Unstable oppression - rejects that the dominant group is superior; sees them as oppressive; feels hostility toward them; motivation to challenge them -Dominate group's responses to being challenged -If the challenge is viewed as unjustified, then views the subordinate group as inferior and threatening and responds with hostility and derogation -If the challenge is viewed as justified, then views the subordinate group as powerful and is tolerant (or at least appears to be tolerant)

What is behavioral compensation? Have you ever experienced or observed it?

-When discrimination is anticipated change behavior in ways that disconfirm stereotypes -Need to develop skills that are above and beyond what is needed to succeed in a typical social interaction -Ex: for female to be viewed as good as a male she has to do better

stereotype threat

-When minorities are acutely aware that they may be judged with regard to a negative stereotype they become fearful of confirming the stereotype -The fear can interfere with their performance on a task, even when no discriminatory action is taken

What is stereotype threat? What brings it about? Have you ever experienced or observed it?

-When minorities are acutely aware that they may be judged with regard to a negative stereotype they become fearful of confirming the stereotype -The fear can interfere with their performance on a task, even when no discriminatory action is taken Related to self-fulfilling prophecy -Ex: autistic children do not think they are smart when comparing themselves to peers, but then when given a role model (such as Mozart) it helps

Start with reactions to A Class Divided (DVD). Do you think the blue eyed/brown eyed exercise was a valuable experience for Jane Elliott's 3rd grade children? What do you think they learned? What effects did being discriminated against have on the children? Do you think the exercise had long term positive or negative effects? Do you think the exercise would have the same effect today? Do you think the exercise was ethical? Do you think the exercise was effective with prison workers? What did the prison workers seem to learn?

-Yes, learned discrimination first hand, so this experience was valuable -3rd graders not as cognitively developed, but they realized how awful/unjustified discrimination is -Would use random things such as forgetting glasses to turn people against each other -She did not check with parents, which is unethical because did not check or with research boards And videotaped children -Children thought they were inferior because of teacher's comments -People have to consent to false impressions, participants usually not allowed to leave laboratory with false impressions -This was able to occur in 3rd grade classroom because in Riceville, Iowa -Similar to Millgram experiment (obedience to authority with voltage) -Danger of putting today's standards on past experiments -Long term positive effects: Important because they were in a mainly white neighborhoods Group privilege -Effective with prison workers, but not to same extent -Learned more about respect Ruthless -Interesting because many brown eyed people were black, so they could draw on past experience

Preschool Racial Attitude Measurement (PRAM II)

-a child hears a story about a person described with positive or negative adjectives -The child must identify the person in the story from the pictures of two people that are identical, except one is white and the other is black -Problem - preference for one category does not necessarily mean rejection of (prejudice toward) the other category

What is procedural justice and how might it reduce feelings of relative deprivation?

-a fair process for distributing rewards -E.g., dissatisfaction women may feel over relatively low salaries (low distributive justice) may be mitigated if they believe that differences between male and female salaries are appropriate (high procedural justice)

integrated threat theory

-draws on other theories -prejudice results from 3 kinds of perceived threat: intergroup anxiety, perceptions of realistic threats, perceptions of symbolic threats

habituation paradigm

-infants spend more time looking at a new photograph when it is of a different gender or age than when it is of the same gender or age as an old (habituated) photo, thus they can differentiate on the basis of gender and age -white infants prefer white faces over those of other races -infants prefer physically attractive faces over unattractive faces

inhibiting factors of hate crimes

-lack of opportunity -fear of negative consequences -belief in nonviolence -knowing someone in the outgroup

Factors that Influence Social Identity

-self categorization -optimal distinctiveness -threat to group -chronic social identities -individual differences

development of racial prejudice: other measures

-social distance scale -observation of intergroup interaction in natural settings -self reports of interaction -sociometric ratings

categorization-competition hypothesis

Categorizing people into ingroups and outgroups is sufficient to generate intergroup competition - "us v. them" - leads to: outgroup homogeneity affect and ingroup favoritism effect

implicit (proverbal) awareness of social categories

Children use social categories without being able to verbalize the differences explicitly

intergroup respect

Discrimination in the workplace may be influenced more by the amount of respect that decision makers have for a group than by stereotypes held about the group

What does the evidence show with regard to children's prejudice with regard to sexual orientation?

Girls more accepting of lesbians and gays Boys more accepting of lesbians and less accepting of gays

How has explicit awareness of social categories been assessed?

Give children pictures or dolls and ask them which belong together

What is realistic conflict theory?

Members of the ingroup dislike members of the outgroup because there are limited resources and they are competing for those resources

Why does PGDD Occur? - Motivational explanations

People want to deny or minimize their own experience with discrimination

What is distributive justice?

Perception that outcomes are not being distributed on the expected basis that people who deserve more get more, but on some other, unfair basis, such as ingroup favoritism

Can social identity ever lead to greater intergroup tolerance?

Perhaps when a person has a complex social identity (i.e., identifies with several groups -e.g., a black, female lawyer)

shifting standards model

decision makers may assume that evaluations of women or minorities were made with lower standards

disidentification

define or redefine one's self-concept so that a particular domain is not an area of self-identification

sticky floor effect

e.g., when Blacks get management positions they are assigned to manage other Blacks, who tend to be in low level jobs

How did Sherif's summer camp studies support it? Sherif's studies were done in the 1940s and 1950s with 5th grade and 6th grade boys, do you think the basic findings of those studies could be replicated today? Do you think that realistic conflicts underlie prejudice?

you don't know the answer to this stupid head