chem
frequency
(∨) number of cycles the wave undergoes per second and is expressed in hertz (units of s⁻¹)
molality
...
molecular orbital theory
...
surface tension
...
How to name compounds
....
Aufbau's order for valence electrons
1 s; 2 s; 2 p; 3 s; 3 p; 4 s; 3 d; 4 p; 5 s; 4 d; 5 p; 6 s; 4 f; 5 d; 6 p; 7 s; 5 f; 6 d; 7 p
4 factors of chemical reaction
1. concentration of reactant 2.temp of reactant 3.use of catalyst 4.surface area of solid
Calculate the longest possible wavelength
1. divide E by avagadros number
4 driving forces of a chemical reaction
1.transfer of electrons 2.formation of precipitate 3.formation of gas 4.formation of water
WATER: C(subscript)ice= ? (include unit)
2.09 J/g degree C
Chlorite
C l O 2 -1
Chlorate
C l O 3 -1
Perchlorate
C l O 4 -1
When bonds are formed
Energy is released
Describe Ethyl Alcohol.
Enthanol. Grain Alcohol. Produced in fermentation. Ethyl alcohol is made by hydration of ethylene.
What is a carbonyl group substitution reaction?
Group -Z replaces the group bonded to the carbonyl carbon atom.
chemistry
the scientific study of the composition, structure, and properties of matter and the changes that matter undergoes
What are anilines?
the simplest aromatic amine
formula unit
the simplest collection of atoms from which an ionic compound's formula can be established
atom
the smallest unit of an element that maintains the chemical properties of that element
Henry's law
the solubility of a gas (Sgas) is directly proportional to the partial pressure of the gas (Pgas) above the solution (Sgas= Kh x Pgas)
Henry's law
the solubility of a gas is directly proportional to its pressure
Titration
used to find the standardization point of an acid and base
which has stronger bonds BETWEEN ATOMS and thus needs more energy to break them? water or metals
water
which model talks of the electron cloud
wave model
today's atomic model is called the ___ model and is based on principles of ___ ____
wave, wave mechanics
Chalating Effect
Multidenate ligands from more stable complexes than monodentate ones
Ammonium
N H 4 +1
Nitrite
N O 2 -1
Nitrate
N O 3 -1
Haber Process
N2 + 3H2 --> 2NH3
Classification of alcohols
Primary alcohol- hydroxy group connected to a primary carbon atom Secondary alcohol- the hydroxyl group is connected to a secondary carbon atom Tertiary alcohol-the hydroxyl group is connected to a tertiary carbon atom
Traits of acids
Produce H+ with water. Tastes sour. pH less than 7. No color change in phenopthalein. Usually produced when non-metalic oxides react with water. Turns litmus pink. Hydrogen proton donor.
Traits of bases
Produced OH- with water. Tastes bitter. pH greater than 7. Turns red in phenopthalein. Usually produced when metalic oxide reacts with water. Turns litmus blue. Hydrogen proton acceptor.
Describe Citric Acid
Produced by almost all plants and animals during metabolism. Commonly used to buffer pH. Very soluble in water. White, crystalline solid.
Colligative Properties
Properties of a solution that depend on the number of solute particles in the solution.
the positively charged subatomic particle of an atom; found in the nucleus
Proton
Resistors vs. Capacitors in Parallel
Resistors and capacitors add oppositely, but V always is constant: V=V₁=V₂=... Adding resistors in parallel decreases overall resistance: 1/R=1/R₁+1/R₂+1/R₃+... Adding capacitors in parallel increases overall capacitance: Cₓ = C₁ + C₂ + C₃ + ...
Resistors vs. Capacitors in Series
Resistors and capacitors add oppositely, but V drop always is cumulative: V= V₁ + V₂ + ... Adding resistors in series increases overall resistance: Total resistance = R₁ + R₂ + R₃ + ... Adding capacitors in series decreases overall capacitance: 1/C=1/C₁+1/C₂+1/C₃+...
Describe Isopropyl Alcohol.
Rubbing alcohol. Less toxic than methanol but more toxic than Ethanol. Skin Cleanser
Sulfite
S O 3 -2
Sulfate
S O 4 -2
sub levels of energy shells
S P D F G H I; S P D F G H I s one orbital; p three orbitals; d five orbitals; f 7 orbitals; g nine orbitals; h 11 orbitals; I 13 orbitals
Galvinic Cell
Spontaneous Redox reaction is used to generate a flow of current
sugar used as energy storage in plants; polysaccharide
Starch
Aufbau Principle
States that electrons are placed in orbitals, subshells and shells in order of increasing energy
Pauli Exclusion Principle
States that no two electrons can have the same set of quantum numbers
Le Chatelier's Law
States that whenever a stress is palced on a situation at equilbrium, the equilibrium will shift to relieve that stress
F--Test
Statistical Test used to determine if two standard deviations are considered the same
Grubbs Test
Statistical test used to identify out liers in a set of data
What are the two types of isomers?
Stereoisomerism (spatial isomerism) and Structural Isomerism (Constitutional isomerism)
a category of lipids; examples are cholesterol and sex hormones such as estrogen and testosterone
Sterol
Structural Isomerism (Constitutional isomerism)versus Stereoisomerism (spatial isomerism)
Structural Isomerism=Different bonds Stereoisomerism= Same bonds, but different arangement in space
nonbiodegradable
Substances that cannot be broken down by bacteria or other organisms plastic, glass
Amphoteric
Substances which can act as either an acid or a base
What is Halogenation?
Substitution of a halogen group, X, for a H.
What is Nitration?
Substitution of nitro group NO2 for a H.
What is sulfonation?
Substitution of sulfonic acid group, SO3H, for a H.
the molecule on which an enzyme acts
Substrate
Quantum Numers
The position of the electrons in relation to the nucleus are described by their quantum numbers
Dipole-Dipole
The positive end of one molecule attracts the negative end of another polar molecule
Aromaticity
a chemical property describing the way in which conjugated ring of unsaturated bonds, lone pairs or empty orbitals exhibit stabilization stronger than with conjugation alone. These non polar aromatic compounds tend to be lipophillic and can therefore cross biological membranes
Cisatracurium
a cis isomer of atracurium. Atracurium was first synthesized in 1974, each molecule has 4 chiral centers, one of its ten isomers is cisatracurium, approved for use in 1995. offers advantages such as lack of histamine response.
gas
a form of matter that does not have a definite volume or shape
Conformational isomerism
a form of stereoisomerism in which the isomers can be interconverted exclusively by rotations about formally single bonds. Can also be called "conformers"
radial probability distributions
a graph in which the total probability of finding the electron in each spherical shell is plotted versus the distance from the nucleus
solution
a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances uniformly dispersed throughout a single phase
Diene
a hydrocarbon that contains two carbon double bonds.. Comulated- two double bonds sharing a carbon atom Conjugated- two double bonds separated by a single bond, very stable configuration Isolated- two double bonds separated by more than one single bond
chemical bond
a mutual electrical attraction between the nuclei and valence electrons of different atoms that binds the atoms together
photon
a particle of electromagnetic radiation having zero mass and carrying a quantum of energy
polymerization
a polymer is a chemical compound or mixture of compounds consisting of repeating structural units created through a process of polymerization. a Monomer is a molecule that may chemically bind to other molecules to form a polymer.
principal quantum number (n)
a positive integer (1,2,3,etc.) that indicates the relative size of the orbital and therefore the relative distance from the nucleus of the peak in the radial probability distribution plot. The higher the n value, the higher the energy level.
chemical property
a property of matter that describes a substance's ability to participate in chemical reactions
extensive property
a property that depends on the amount of matter present
intensive property
a property that does not depend on the amount of matter present
conversion factor
a ratio derived from the equality between two different units that can be used to convert from one unit to the other
double-displacement reaction
a reaction in which a gas, a solid precipitate, or a molecular compounds forms from the apparent exchange of atoms or ions between two compounds
coefficient
a small whole number that appears as a factor in front of a formula in a chemical equation
precipitate
a solid that is produced as a result of a chemical reaction in a solution
Buffer
a soultion with a very stable pH
system
a specific portion of matter in a given region of space that has been selected for study during an experiment or observation
What is an alkoxide ion?
a strong base as a hydroxide ion. (Anion of alcohol)
allotrope
a structurally different form of an element; graphite and a diamond have the same formula but different structure to the atoms
proton
a subatomic particle with a +1 charge
electron
a subatomic particle with a -1 charge
compound
a substance made up of atoms of two or more different elements joined by chemical bonds
element
a substance that cannot be separated or broken down into simpler substances by chemical means
Indicator error
adding an acid/base in the form of an indicator
large jump in ionization energy (IE)
after the outer valence electrons have been removed, there is a _______
reaction dynamics
aka rate of reaction or reaction kinetics
group 2
alkaline earth metals
isotopes
an atom that has the same number of protons as other atoms of the same element do but that has a different number of neutrons
ion
an atom which possesses a positive or negative charge
Paramagnetic
an atom with one or more half filled orbitals. It will be attracted to a magnetic field.
Alternating Current
an electric current that reverses direction sinusoidally: i_rms = i_max (max current)/sqrt(2) V_rms = V_max(max potential)/sqrt(2) The RMS current is about half the arch of an A/C current diagram
nonmetal
an element that is a poor conductor of heat and electricity
metals
an element that is shiny and that conducts heat and electricity well
What is the Rydberg equation ?
an empirical equation that relates the wavelengths of the lines in the hydrogen spectrum;
word equation
an equation in which the reactants and products in a chemical reaction are represented by words
monatomic ion
an ion formed from a single atom
anions
an ion with a negative charge
cations
an ion with a positive charge
What is an aldehyde?
an organic compound containing the structure R-CO-H Aldehydes are a carbonyl center bonded to a hydrogen and an R group
What is a ketone?
an organic compound with the structure R-CO-R' ketones feature a carbonyl group bonded to two other carbon atoms.
spectrometry
analysis of absorption emission or scattering of light to determine concentration
Indirect titration
analyte metal complexes w/ ligand other than EDTA XS ligand is titrtated w/ EDTA
Ion exchange
anion or cation exchange water softening
larger
anions are ____ than their parent atoms
democritus
atomos (not to be cut--cannot divide matter infinitely), infinite number of atoms (hard, small, always moving, can join together)
What is an isomer?
compounds with the same molecular formula, but different structural formulas. They do not necessarily share similar properties
dynamic range
concentration range over which there is a measurable response to analyte
3 forms of heat transfer
conduction (direct contact), convection (occurs in liquids or gases), radiation (occurs thru space)
significant figures
consists of all the digits known with certainty plus one final digit, which is somewhat uncertain or is estimated (in measurement)
electromagnetic radiation
consists of energy propagated by electric and magnetic fields that alternately increase and decrease in intensity as they move through space
nucleus
contains all the positive charge and nearly all the mass of the atom
face centered cubic structure
coordination number = 12 (4 atoms/cell) 74% packing efficiency
simple cubic structure
coordination number= 6 (1 atom/cell) 52% packing efficiency
body centered cubic structure
coordination number=8 (2 atoms/cell) 68% packing efficiency
double bond
covalent bond in which two pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms
Dimitri Mendeleev and Lothar Meyer
credited with the creation of the periodic table
abcabc
cubic closest packing placement
solubility product
eq. constant for the dissociation of a solid salt to give ions in soltuion
systematic error
error due to procedure tor instrumental
Proportional Error
error that changes size with the size of the measurement
Interpolation
estimation of the value of a quantity that lies between 2 known values
Enflurane
halogenated esther that was used for inhalation anesthesia during the 70's and 80's. First used in 1966
group 7
halogens
properties of ionic compounds
hard, high melting; conduct a current only when melted or dissolved; strong intermolecular attractions
high energy photons
have enough energy to disrupt covalent bonds
Heterocyclic compound
have more than one element comprising the ring
excited state
having more than min. energy
most liquids solids and gases expand when heated
heat expansion
global warming
heat is trapped by oxygen and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
at a certain point when heating, no temp change and we're just adding energy (2 answers)
heat of fusion, vaporization (this is the transition between phases)
amplitude
height of the crest for each wave; related to the intensity of the wave
Elution Time
is a measure of how solute particles are retained. those that are strongly retained have a slow migration rate and elute off the column last.
formation of water
is the driving force in all acid base neutralization reactions
Mass % of element
mass of x/mass of 1 mol * 100
saturated
maximum amount of dissolved solute at a given temperature in the presence of undissolved solute
Buffer capacity
measure of the ability of a buffer to resist changes in pH. Generally a buffer can maintain pH within a +- 1 pKA
Gibbs energy
measure of thermodynamic driving force (it is a state function)
Spectrophotometer
measures slight variations in light
quantum mechanics
mechanics applied to the atomic and nuclear level and dealing with photons and other quanta that show both wave and particle behavior
LOQ
median numerical value
Displacement Titration
metal EDTA added to analyte metal Ion, Swap rest titrated by another metal ion
Back Titration
metal ppts in absence of EDTA metal RXN w/ EDTA is slow metal block indicator
properties of metallic compounds
metallic behavior correlates with large atomic size and low ionization energy (increases down a group and decreases across a period)
What is an rearrangement reaction
molecule undergoes bond reorganization to yield an isomer
cathode rays
move from negative electrode to positive electrode (like electrons in a voltaic cell)
metallic bonding
occurs when metal atoms in a sample pool their valence elections into an evenly distributed "sea" of electrons that "flows" between and around the metal ion cores
Base
produce OH in water
arrehnius base
produce OH ions in aqeuos solutions
derived unit
produced by multiplying or dividing standard units; combination of SI base units
arrehnius acid
produces H+ ions in solution
colligative properties
properties that depend on number, not on chemical nature: vapor pressure lowering, boiling point elevation, freezing point depression, osmotic pressure
Rutherford's Gold Foil Experiment
proposed that atoms consist of a tiny, massive, positive nucleus surrounded by electrons
Primary standard
pure enough, cheap
In discussing quant. and qaul. analysis one could say:
quant. deals with the quantity of material present
How do alcohols act as antimicrobials?
rapid borad-spectrum antimicrobial activity against vegetative bacterial, mycobacteria, viruses, fungi, but not sporadical. Little is known about the specific mode of action. They likely damage the membrane and denature proteins in these microbes.
Current
rate of flow of electricity
high electron affinity
readily gain electrons to form negative ions
low ionization energy
readily lose electrons to form positive ions
Masking Agent
reagent added to react with interfeing metal ions other than analyte
True Regarding a Blank
reagent blank is a sample without analyte that is prepared with the same set of solutions to produce the same matrix
The color with the longest wavelength
red
isotopes
same element with different numbers of neutrons
isoelectronic
same number of electrons
...
second order reaction equation
Monochromator
separates and selects wavelenght
What is a cyclic compound?
series of atoms are connected in a loop or ring
gold foil experiment--what happened & what it meant
shot positively charged particles at gold foil, some go through but some change course (positive charges repel positive charges) so plum pudding model incorrect (atoms in gold foil were mostly open space)
empirical formula
shows relative number of atoms in a compound
standard solutino
solun. whose composition is known by how it was made
absorption chrom.
solute absorbed on surface of stationary phase
Molecular Exclusion chromatography
solute molecules can be separated by size
Affinity Chromatography
solute molecules that can undergo specific interactions
Partition chromatography
solute particles absorbed to a thin liquid film
basic
solution with a pH of 14
What type of hybrid orbital does a trigonal structure have?
sp 2 hybrids: Trigonal Structures: o The small amount of energy needed to promote an electron from the 2s to one of the 2p levels is compensated by bond formation. The three filled atomic orbitals mix to form three sp 2 orbitals—each is of 33% s character and 67% p character. The last p orbital stays the same. The front lobes (and their corresponding back lobes) face in opposite directions (at 120 ° from each other). Electron repulsion therefore creates a trigonal planar geometry.
electron configuration
the arrangement of electrons in an atom
precision
the closeness of a set of measurements of the same quantity made in the same way
accuracy
the closeness of measurements to the correct or accepted value of the quantity measured
quantum numbers
the four numbers that define each particular electron of an atom. The Principle Quantum Number (n) describes the electrons' energy and distance from the nucleus. The Angular Momentum Quantum Number (l) describes the shape of the orbital in which the electron resides. The Magnetic Quantum Number (m) describes the orientation of the orbital in space. The Spin Quantum Number (s) describes whether the spin of the electron is positive or negative.
heat of melting
the heat energy absorbed by a substance as it transforms from solid to liquid (cooling curve shows changes in heat, not melting points/temps of melting)
specific heat
the heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance one degree centigrade
Amplitude is...
the height at maximum
quantum
the minimum quantum of energy that can be lost or gained by an atom
Chiral
the molecule that has a non-superimposable mirror image. Usually containing a carbon atom and a three dimensional asymmetry.. two mirror images of a chiral molecule are called enantiomer.
Equivalence Point
the point in the titration when exactly enough base has been added to neutralize all the acid that was initially present
Explain the prefix in naming of hydrocarbons...
the prefix comes from the number of carbons in the compound. 1 = Met 2 = Eth 3 = Prop 4 = But 5 = Pent 6 = Hex 7 = Hept 8 =Oct 9 = Non 10 =Dec
alternative sources
wind power, solar power, water power
Kinetics
"The science of realistic expectation"-deals with the question of how long we will have to wait for the possible to actually happen
Thermodynamics
"The science of the possible"-deals with the question of what will happen if we wait long enough
Formula mass
(# atoms * atomic mass of 1st element) + (# atoms * atomic mass of 2nd element)...
photons
(acc. to Einstein) light is quantized into small bundles of electromagnetic energy called ______. (also called quanta)
atomic line spectra
(further explanation) provide evidence that the energy state of an electron in an atom is quantized
electron density diagram
(radial probability distribution plot) probable distribution of electrons around an atom in an electron cloud shown through Schrodinger's model
velocity of gas molecules
(square root formula)
volume percent
(volume of solute/ volume of solution) x 100%
wavelength
(λ) distance between any point on a wave and the corresponding point on the proximate wave; distance wave travels during one cycle; (measured in meters. but also expressed in pico (10⁻⁹) and femto (10⁻¹²) meters and Angstroms (10⁻¹⁰)
lattice energy
(∆H°lattice) the enthalpy change that occurs when 1 mol of ionic solid separates into gaseous ions
Spin of electron =
+1/2, or -1/2
Oxidation - Alkaline Earth
+2
Oxidation - Group 3
+3
- What can hydrogen-bond with water?
- Alcohols, amines, C=O's, ethers, and F all hydrogen-bond with water.
Electronegativity
- How strongly the nucleus of an atom attracts the electrons of other molecules in a bond - Increases from left to right - Increases bottom to top (Florine)
What is a Lewis acid? What is a Lewis base?
------ - A Lewis acid accepts a pair of electrons to form a new covalent bond.- A Lewis base donates a pair of electrons to form a new covalent bond.
What is a Bronsted acid? What is a Bronsted base?
------ - Bronsted acid is a proton donor. - Bronsted base is a proton acceptor.
What does a compound need to be antiaromatic?
------ - Cyclic - Have one p orbital on each atom - Planar allowing for overlap of adjacent p orbitals - Have 4, 8, 12, 16, ..... π electrons. (4n π electrons where n is 0 and all positive integers) - Especially unstable
What is the First Law of Thermodynamics?
------ - Energy is conserved; it can be neither created nor destroyed. - The internal energy of an isolated system is constant.
- If a chiral atom is in the "R" configuration, in what direction does the arc go? - If a chiral atom is in the "S" configuration, in what direction does the arc go?
------ - If the arc goes in a clockwise direction, the chiral atom is in the "R" configuration. - If the arc goes in a counterclockwise direction, the chiral atom is in the "S" configuration.
What is the Second Law of Thermodynamics?
------ - In an isolated system, natural processes are spontaneous when they lead to an increase in disorder, or entropy. - The entropy of an isolated system tends to increase.
What are isomers?
------ Isomers are two compounds with the same molecular forumla that are different.
What does Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectrometry tell us?
------ NMR to tell us how many different types of hydrogens or carbons there are in a compound.
What is the molecular geometry of SF6?
------ Octahedral
What is random error?
------ Random errors most often result from limitations in the equipment or techniques used to make a measurement. Suppose, for example, that you wanted to collect 25 mL of a solution. You could use a beaker, a graduated cylinder, or a buret. Volume measurements made with a 50-mL beaker are accurate to within �5 mL. In other words, you would be as likely to obtain 20 mL of solution (5 mL too little) as 30 mL (5 mL too much). You could decrease the amount of error by using a graduated cylinder, which is capable of measurements to within �1 mL. The error could be decreased even further by using a buret, which is capable of delivering a volume to within 1 drop, or �0.05 mL.
What is retention time?
------ Retention time is the time taken for a particular compound to travel through the column to the detector. Different compounds have different retention times.
What is the molecular geometry of SF4?
------ Seesaw
What is the molecular geometry of XeF4?
------ Square planar
What is the molecular geometry of BrF5?
------ Square pyramidal
Coulumb's Law
-Bigger Charges means stronger bonds -The closer the bonds the stronger the bonds
Ionization Energy
-Energy required to remove an electron from an atom -Left to right - Increases - Bottom to top - Increases
Enthalpy, Delta H
-Measure of energy that is released or absorbed by the substance when bonds are broken or formed
pH =
-log[H+]
Delta G
-nFE
Graham's Law of Effusion
...
Valence bond theory
...
alpha particle
...
beta particle
...
critical temperature
...
diffraction by crystals
...
dipole moment
...
gamma ray
...
hybrid orbitals
...
Bohr model of the hydrogen atom
1. H atom has only certain allowable energy states (stationary states) 2. atom does not radiate energy while in one of its stationary states (atom does not change energy while the electron moves within an orbit) 3. the atom changes to another stationary state only by absorbing or emitting a photon whose energy equals the difference in energy between the two states
How do you find the E (energy) in 1 mol of a photon?
1. c= v*λ
4 indicators of a chemical change
1. color change 2.formation of precipitate 3.formation of gas 4.change in temp
what degree celsius does water boil
100
between ? and ? degrees C, water actually EXPANDS as it cools and turns into a solid
4 and 0
What is Isoprene?
4 carbondiene, or 2-methyl-1,3-butadiene
1 cal = ? J
4.184
specific heat of water AKA C (subscript) water = ? J/gC
4.184
WATER: C(subscript)water=? (include unit)
4.184 J/g degree C
Avogadru's number
6.022*10^23
Octehedral-Octehdral
90 sp3d2 (1 lone pair)
Octehedral-square planar
90 sp3d2 (3 lone pairs)
Tetrahedral-trigonal pyramidal
<109 sp3 (1 lone pair)
Tetrahedral-bent
<109.5 sp3 (2 lone pairs)
Trigonal bipyramidal-seesaw
<120 & 90 sp3d (1 lone pair)
Trigonal bipyramidal-Tshaped
<120 & < 90 sp3d (2 lone pairs)
Octehedral-square pyramidal
<90 sp3d2 (2 lone pairs)
What is a ketone?
A compound that has a carbonyl group bonded to two carbons in organic groups that can be the same or different. RCOR. Always within a carbon.
Describe Acetone
A super solvent. Dissolved most organic compounds and is miscible with water. Volatile.
Le Chatliers's Princliple
A system at eq that is disturbed will response by shifting in the direction that will reestablish the eq. by offsetting the disturbance
Diasteromer
A type of stereoisomer occurs when two or more stereoisomers of a compound have different configurations at one or more (but not all) of the equivalent (related) stereocenters and are not mirror images of each other. Such as cis and trans isomers.
biodegradable
Able to be broken down naturally fruit, dental floss
Spectrophotometry
Absorbance of radiation is proportional to the concentrations of the absorbing species
Aspirin
Acetlsalicylic acid has three groups: Carboxylic acid, ester and aromatic group
any fluid with a pH below 7.0 indicating the presence of more hydrogen ions than hydroxide ions
Acid
Polyprotic
Acids which can give up more than one hydrogen. ex: H3PO4
How is the systemic name formed for a thiol?
Adding thiol to the parent hydrocarbon name
Primary alcohols are converted to...
Aldehydes under controlled conditions. or carboxylic acids, if in excess of oxidant is used.
Types of carbonyls
Aldehydes, Ketones, carboxylic acids, esters, amides
Describe Saturated and Unsaturated in alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes.
Alkanes are saturated because they have many hydrogen's as possible. Alkenes and Alkynes are unsaturated because they contain carbon-carbon multiple bonds.
What is combustion?
Alkanes reacting with an oxygen. Complete combustion forms CO2 and H2O. Releases a lot of heat. Incomplete can create carbon monoxide and carbon with soot.
The simplest type of hydrocarbons are called....
Alkanes-
What is Hydration?
Alkenes wont react with pure water. If small amounts of a strong acid catalyst is added, an addition reaction will happen and yield an alcohol.
What are properties of Carboxylic Acids, Esters and Amides?
All undergo carbonyl group substitution reactions. Esters and amides made from carboxylic acids.
Describe the basicity of amines
An ammounium ion is a positive ion formed by addition of hydrogen to amine.
Diamagnetic
An atome with no half filled orbitals. It is repelled by magnetic field. Chlorine, Sulfur, Nitrogen, and Iron are all diamagnetic.
galvani potential
An electrical potential that exists between two different electrolyte solutions
Patition
Analyte interacts with surface
AN OX
Anode = Oxidation
...
Arrhenius constant
ln(k₂/k₁)=-Ea/R [(1/T₂)-(1/T₁)]
Arrhenius equation (k=Ae (-Ea/RT))
Nerst Equation
As the concentration of the products or a redox rxn increases, the voltage decreases; As the concentration of the reactants in the redox increases, the voltage increases
As a wavelength gets longer what happens to the strength?
As wavelength increases, the strength decreases
a particle of matter that cannot be further subdivided without losing its essential properties
Atom
What is a substitution reaction
Atom/group of atoms in a molecule is replaced by another atom/group
a chemical that can quickly absorb excess hydrogen ions in a solution or quickly release hydrogen ions to counteract increases in hydroxide ions concentrations
Buffer
How is strength of an acid measured?
By its dissociation constant. (Ka) smaller value of Ka, the weaker the acid.
How are carboxylate anions named?
By replacing the -ic ending in the carboxylic acid name with -ate
Carbonate
C O 3 -2
Hypochlorite
C l O -1
Carbonate
CO3 2-
Componets of a method gauge accuracy
Calibration checks, quality controls, blanks
Precipitation
Can be used to identify an unknown substance
What is a carbonyl group?
Carbonyl groups have one oxygen atom double-bonded to a carbon atom . Symbolized C=O
Cell Potential (E)
Cathode - Anode
RED CAT
Cathode = Reduction
sugar that composes plant cell walls; cannot be digested; polysaccharide
Cellulose
Collision Theory
Chemical reactions occur because reactants are constantly moving around and colliding with one anther
sugar used to make exoskeletons; polysaccharide
Chitin
a sterol; can be used to help cell membrane stay flexible
Cholesterol
Percholorate
ClO4-
What is the general formula for alkanes?
CnH2n+2
hydrogen bonds hold water molecules together; water sticks to water
Cohesion
What are properties of cycloalkanes?
Cycloprotane and cyclobutane are gases at room temp. Non polar, insoluble in water and flammable. More rigid and less mobility.
Arrhenius (scientist)
Defined an acid as a substance that ionizes water and produces hydrogen ion Defined a base as a substance that ionizes in water and produces hydroxide ion
Bronsted Lowry
Defined an acid as a substance that is capable of donating a proton, and a base as a substance that is capable of accepting a proton.
the process of joining monosaccharides together by removing water
Dehydration Synthesis
Cp =
Delta H / Delta T
Activity
Effective concentration in a solution
Hydrated Radius
Effective size of an ion or molecules plus its associated water molecules in solution
Gamma Rays
Electro magnetic radiation and have no mass and no charge
the negatively charge subatomic particle of an atom; found in the electron cloud/shell
Electron
Principle Quantum Number
Electron determines its average distance from the nucleus as well as its energy
DC Current
Electrons flow in one direction, from negative to positive. Only batteries produce it DC Current.
a substance that cannot be broken down chemically into any other substances
Element
How do you name aldehydes?
End in -aldehyde. Systemic name is replacing the final -e with -al. When substituents are present, the chain is numbered beginning with carbonyl carbon
How are unsaturaed acids named?
Ending with -enoic
"+" Enthalpy
Endothermic
Metal ion indicator
Endpoints for EDTA titrations can be determined by several methods. the method that employs a color change when it binds to metal ion
a protein that initiates and accelerates a chemical reaction in a living organism; end in ASE
Enzyme
"-" Enthalpy
Exothermic
Field Blank
Exposed to all the same environmental conditions as the sample
Molality
Expresses the concentration in terms of the mass of a solvent
T/F dalton and the greeks said that atoms were DIVISIBLE
FALSE
T/F thompson knew about the nucleus
FALSE
T/F: thermal energy is less in more massive objects even if no temperature change
FALSE (energy is GREATER in more massive objects . . .)
T/F plasma is a terrible conductor
FALSE (it has ions! its a great conductor)
a long hydrocarbon; form the tail region of a triglyceride fat
Fatty Acid
Current
Flow of charge as it moves across a potential difference (voltage), denoted as I and measured by the amount of charge passing through a conductor over a unit of time: I = Δq/Δt = amps
What are properties of carboxylic acids
Form H-bonds with each other. Up to 9 carbons, they are liquid. Water soluble up to 4 carbons.
Atomic Radius Trend
From Left to right it decreases From top to bottom is increases
fruit sugars; monosaccharide
Fructose
Temp. Programming
GC- low volatility analytes (solvents) Detection- lowest to highest volatility follows size Isothermal- constant temp change in temp at diff. times in the process of the run makes molecules fall of at different times
What is the order, from shortest to longest, of rays?
Gamma<x<UV<Visible<near infrared<far infrared<micro<radio
Condensation
Gas to Liquid
Deposition
Gas to Solid
∆G= ∆H - T∆S
Gibbs free energy formula
Barium Burns
Green
What is an alcohol?
Has an -OH group bonded with a saturated, alkane-like carbon atom.
What is a benzene?
Hexagon with 3 double bonds.
Primary standard
High molecular mass
ULOL
Highest concentration quantifiable that gives a linear response
large chains of Carbon-hydrogen; are non-polar and hydrophobic
Hydrocarbon
a type of weak chemical bond formed between the slightly positively charged hydrogen atoms of one molecule and the slightly negatively charged atoms of another
Hydrogen Bond
oils are hydrogenated (H atoms are added) making it solid at room temperature; causes an unsaturated fat to become saturated; improves texture, taste and shelf life; not healthy
Hydrogenation
the process of breaking apart polysaccharides by adding water
Hydrolysis
Water-loving
Hydrophilic
Water-fearing; water-hating
Hydrophobic
Insoluble
Hydroxide, Carbonate, Phosphate, Sulfite, Chromate, Sulfide
What is the systemic name of phenol?
Hydroxybenzene
Charles Law
If pressure is kept constant, then as temperature increases, volume increases
Boyles Law
If temperautre is kept constant, then as pressure increases, volume decreases
Werner Heisenberg
Impossible to know both the position and momentum of an electron at a particular instant
What is Hydrogenation
In presence of a metal catalyst to yield the corresponding alkane product
Electron's Potential Energy
Increases with the distance from the nucleus
Dielectric
Insulating material placed between the two plates of a capacitor. If the circuit is plugged into a current source, more charge will be stored in the capacitor. If the circuit is not plugged into a current source, the voltage of the capacitor will decrease.
classification of thermodynamic properties
Intensive vs. extensive properties
Describe Ethylene Glycol.
It is a diol. Used as engine antifreeze and coolant. Highly toxic and has a slightly sweet taste.
Kp =
Kc(RT)^Delta n Kc = molar concentration R = 0.0821 T = Absolute Temperature Delta n = (moles of products gas - reactants)
Ketosis
Ketone bodies are three water-soluble compounds that are produced as by-products when fatty acids are broken down for energy in the liver (prolonged fasting). Two of the three are used as energy in the heart and brain, the third is acetone which is a waste product.
Secondary alcohols are converted to...
Ketones
Ketone versus Aldehydes
Ketones- the carbonyl group is bonded to two carbines within the carbon skeleton. Aldehydes- the carbonyl group is bonded to one carbon and one hydrogen at the end of the carbon chains
S-Subshell (l) and m1
L=0 m1=0
P-Subshell (l) and m1
L=1 m1= -1, 0, 1
D-subshell
L=2 m1= -2, -1, 0, 1, 2
milk sugar, disaccharide
Lactose
LACTASE fails to work properly in those with lactose intolerance; they cannot digest LACTOSE(disaccharide) into glucose and galactose; Lactose passes through digestive system undigested causing severe gastointestinal cramping, gases
Lactose Intolerance
What is λ?
Lamda is the wavelength
"-" Delta S
Less Disorder
Strong Bases
LiOH NaOH KOH Ba(OH)2 Sr(OH)2
Vaporization
Liquid to Gas
Freezing
Liquid to Solid
LOD
Lowest concentration detectable above the noise
Permanganate
M n O 4 -1
a large molecule that is made up of smaller building blocks
Macromolecule
Density =
Mass / Volume
Capacitance
Measure of a capacitor's ability to store charge, calculated by the ratio of the magnitude of charge on one plate to the voltage across the two plates, expressed in SI units, farads. C = Q/V = farads
Heat Capacity
Measure of how much the temperature of an object is raised when it absorbs heat
Gibbs Free Energy, Delta G
Measure of the spontaniety of the process
What is the systemic name of toluene?
Methylbenzene
What is an amino group?
NH2
Nitrate
NO3 -
How do you name alcohols?
Name parent chain, Number carbons, and write name
How do you name esters?
Name the alkyl group R in the ester group. Then name of the parent acid group with family name ending -ic acid replaced by -ate
Naming ionic compounds
Name the metal first. If the metal is not in groups 1, 2, or 3, put the charge of the metal with a roman numeral in parenthasis after the metal. Three exeptions are zinc, silver, and cadmium. Non metals end in I D E. Simply name the polyatomic ions.
"+" Delta G
Non Spontaneous
the part of an atom which contains both the protons and neutrons making up the atomic mass
Nucleus
Hydroxide
OH -1
What is a phenol?
OH attached to a benzene ring.
Hydroxide
OH-
What is Oxidation?
Occurs when primary and secondary alcohols are converted into carbonyl-containing compounds by an oxidizing agent. Increase in C-O bonds and or decrease in C-H bonds
Phosphate
PO4 3-
Valence Shell Electron
Pair repulsion (VSEPR)
lipids that composed the cell membrane; have a polar head and two non-polar tails
Phospholipid
Anode
Place where oxidation takes place at the electrode
Cathode
Place where reduction takes place at the electrode
6.626x10⁻³⁴
Plank's constant
having an electrical charge
Polar Bond
a molecule that has a slightly negative pole and a slightly positive pole
Polarity
Potassium Burns
Purple
to remember the Q= equation INVOLVING SPECIFIC HEAT (NOT the other Q= equations!!!), use WHAT? (type whole equation simplistically)
Q=mCAT (the A stands for the triangle, delta)
On the visible light spectrum, list the order of colors from largest wavelength to smallest.
ROYGBIV
Confidence Interval
Range of values within which there is a specified probability that the true value lies
Calcium Burns
Red
Lithium Burns
Red
Strontium Burns
Red
Ionic atmosphere
Region of solution around an ion or a hat contains an charged particle that contains an excess of oppositely charged ions
How do you name ketones?
Replace final -e with -one. numbering chain begins at end closest to ketone
How are alkylamine cations named?
Replaceing ending -amine with -ammonium
What is Halogenation?
Replacement of an alkane hydrogen by a chlorine or bromine initiated by heat or light.
Distillation
Separation of two liquids by boiling one out and leaving the other there
henry's law
Sgas= Kh x Partial pressure
Describe Esters
Simple esters are lower boiling points than acids from which they are derived. Simple are colorless, volatile with a pleasant odor
Alkanes have a ______ bond
Single- between two carbon atoms
Sublimation
Solid to Gas
T/F kelvin scale is ABSOLUTE (so no movement of molecules--this is called absolute zero, 0K, and we have not reached it yet)
TRUE
T/F plasma is affected by magnetic fields
TRUE (it has ions!)
Case 2 t-test
Test to compare results from two different experiments with replicate measurements
Electron Affinity
The amount of energy released when an electron is added to a neutral atom or molecule to form a negative ion -Increases from left to right
3rd ionization energy
The amount of energy required to remove the first and second and third outermost electrons.
2nd ionization energy
The amount of energy required to remove the first and second outermost electrons.
Heat of Vaporization
The energy required to change a liquid into a gas
Oxidation State
The number of electrons that it gains or loses when it forms a bond
The photo electric effect demonstrates what?
The particle nature of light
Power of a resistor
The rate at which energy is displaced by a resistor is the power of the resistor: P (watts) = i(amps)V(volts) = i^2R = V^2/R
Grahams Law
The rate of effusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its molecular weight
"0" Delta G
The reaction is at equilibrium
What is acetylene?
The simplest alkyne. Should be known as ethyne.
Cyclopropane
The smallest cyclic hydrocarbon. The angle strain from a 60 degree angle between carbon atoms (much less than the normal angle of 109.5) makes this compound reactive, and explosive.
electron energy
The strength of attachment of an electron to the nucleus of an atom; the closer and electron to the nucleus, the higher the electron binding energy.
Null Hypothysis
The supposition that two quantities do not differ from each other or that two methods do not give the same results
Explain the ending of the naming system for hydrocarbons..
The type of bond in the hydrocarbon is also involved in naming the atom. This information contributes to the ending. Single Bond = Alkane, ending "-ane" Double Bond = Alkene, ending "-ene" Tripple Bond = Alkynes, ending "-yne"
What are properties of benzene?
They are much less reactive than alkenes and normally don't undergo addition reactions. Nonpolar, insoluble in water, volatile, and flammable.
Describe the acidity of Carboxylic acids
They are weak acids that establish equilibria in aqueous solutions with caroxylate anions.
Describe Carboxylic Acids
They surrender the H of the carboxyl group to bases and establish acid-base equilibria in aqueous solutions
Alkynes have a _____ bond
Tripple- between two carbon atoms
Standard Deviation
Uncertainty generated by differences in glassware measurements
Tolerance
Uncertainty generated by differences in glassware measurements
Watts
Unit of Power.
Joules
Unit of energy. Both W (work) and E (energy) use the unit J (joules): Joules = (kg * m^2) / s^2
a fat which has at least one double bond; liquids at room temperature; plant fats/oils
Unsaturated fat
The Salt Bridge
Used to maintain electrical neutrality by providing enough ions to equal the positive ions being created at the anode and providing positive ions to replace the molecules at the cathode
Describe Glycerol.
Useful in food so it is sweet. Used as moisturizer and solvent. Extremely viscous fluid. Provides back bone for animal fats or veggie oils.
Describe the acidity of alcohols and phenols.
Very weak acidity because of the positively polarized OH hydrogen. They dissolve slightly in solution and establish equilibria between neutral and anionic forms. Phenols are 10,000 more acidic than water
Louis de Brogli
Wave characteristics - behavior of electrons is better described in terms of waves than particles
Boiling Point Elevation
When a solute is added to a solution, the boiling point increases
Freezing Point Depression
When a solute is added to a solution, the freezing point decreases
What is an addition reaction?
Where a substance X-Y adds to the multiple bond of an unsaturated reactant to yield a saturated product that only single bonds.
Conduction
Whether the solid/liquid is able to transport an electric current. -Ionic solutes conduct electricity -Nonionic solutes do not conduct electricity
Sodium Burns
Yellow
Ka =
[H+][A-] / [HA] H+ = molar concentration of hydrogen A- = molar concentration of base ions HA = undissociated acid molecules
Kb =
[HA+][OH-] / [B] HA+ = protonanted base ions OH- = hydroxide ions B = unprotonated base molecules
mass percent
[mass of solute/ (mass of solute + mass of solvent)] x100%
concentrations of reactants and products
____ has no effect on the rate constant
bonding
_____ lowers the potential energy between positive and negative particles
orbitals
a 3-dimensional region around the nucleus that indicates the probable location of an electron
mixture
a combination of two or more substances that are not chemically combined
Indicator
a compound having a physical property that changes abruptly near eq. point
ionic compound
a compound whose simplest units are ions (metals+nonmetals)
single bond
a covalent bond in which one pair of electrons is shared between two atoms
polar-covalent bond
a covalent bond in which the bonded atoms have an unequal attraction for the shared electrons
triple bond
a covalent bond in which three pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms
Capacitor
a device for accumulating and holding a charge of electricity, consisting of two equally charged conducting surfaces having opposite signs and separated by a dielectric.
decomposition reaction
a reaction in which a single compound breaks down to form two or more simpler substances
single-displacement reaction
a reaction in which one element or radical takes the place of another element or radical in a compound
synthesis reaction
a reaction in which two or more substances combine to form a new compound
chemical equatioin
a representation of a chemical reaction that uses symbols to show the relationship between the reactants and the products
formula equation
a representation of the reactants and products of a chemical reaction by their symbols or formulas
activity series
a series of elements that have similar properties and that are arranged in descending order of chemical activity (metals/halogens)
atomic line spectrum
a series of fine lines of individual colors separated by colorless (black) spaces (each species has a characteristic spectrum)
SI
a single measurement system which has seven base units; SI units are defined in terms of standards and measurements
Conjugated system
a system of connected p-orbitals with delocalized electrons in compounds with alternating single and multiple bonds, which in general results in a stable molecule with lower energy needs this is achieved by overlapping p orbitals.
What is an aldehyde group?
a type of carbonyl group. Aldehyde groups, where the C=O group is at the end of an organic molecule. A hydrogen atom is also located on the same carbon atom
What is a Keto group?
a type of carbonyl group. Keto groups, where the C=O group is located within an organic molecule. All sugars have either a keto or an aldehyde group.
Enantiomer (optical isomer)
a type of stereoisomer. These are pairs of molecules existing in forms that are mirror images of each other- cannot be superimposed.
atomic mass unit
a unit of mass that describes the mass of an atom or molecules
Sensitivity
ability of a method to differentiate between small concentrations of analyate
Selectivity
ability of a method to distinguish analyte from other compounds
Robustness
ability of a method to withstand small deliberate changes or small errors
activity
ability of components to come together and react
Buffer capacity
ability to resist pH change
radiation
absorption result
What is the general rule for isomers?
all hydrocarbons except methane is that carbon must be bonded to at least 1 carbon. Carbon atoms makes backbone.
Max Plank
all possible energies are multiples of certain energy units called quantums
Peptide bonds
all proteins are constructed from individual amino acids linked together with peptide bonds. the peptide bone is actually an amide linkage between the carboxylic acid end of one amino acid and the amino end of another amino acid.
electromagnetic spectrum
all waves in the _____ travel at the same speed but differ in frequency and wavelength
mole fraction
amount (mol) of solute/ [amount (mol) of solute + amount (mol) of solvent]
Molality (m)
amount (mol) of solute/ mass (kg) of solvent
membrane potential
an analytical method in which an electric potential difference of a cell is measured in order to determine chemical concentration
electron-dot notation
an electron configuration notation in which only the valence electrons of an atom of a particular element are shown, indicated by dots placed around the elements symbol
Aufbau principle
an electron occupies the lowest energy orbital that can receive it
lewis acid
an electron pair acceptor
lewis base
an electron pair donor
Hund's Rule
an electron will always occupy an empty orbital if one is availble
metalloid
an element that has properties of both metals and nonmetals
Electrolysis
applied potential, needs energy
covalent bond
arises from the balance between nucleus-electron attractions and electron-electon and nucleus-nucleus repulsions
Imidazole
aromatic heterocyclic compound
electrons with the lowest energy are found ___ to the nucleus in the lower energy levels (is the opposite for electrons with highest energy)
close
Ion pair
closely associated pair of ions that behave as 1 species in solution
delocalized
delocalized electrons= ____ bonding
whose theory was ignored for more than 2000 years
democritus
Extensive properties
dependent on the amount of material present: Examples are total volume and mass
quantum theory
describes mathematically the wave properties of electrons and other very small particles
Accuracy
determined by relative error
Coulomb's Law
electric force between charged objects depends on the distance between the objects and the magnitude of the charges.
gamma ray, x-ray, uv-ray, visibile, infrared, microwave, radio
electromagnetic waves in order of decreasing frequency
endothermic
feels=cold temp=decreases heat flows into the reaction
exothermic
feels=warm temp=increase heat flows out to the surroundings
ln([A]₀/[A])= kt
first order reaction equation
Method of least squares
fitting a function to a set of points by minimizing the sum of the squares of the distant from the points to the curve
Volumetric Glassware
flask that is calibrated to contain the volume when filled up to line. typically measured to 3 or 4 sig. figs. such as a pipet is calibrated to deliver the volume without blowing it out with the bulb
electromagnetic spectrum
formed by all electromagnetic radiation combined together
abab
hexagonal closest packing placement
Bright light has what kind of amplitude
high
higher photon energy
higher frequencies (∨) and shorter wavelengths (λ)
Boiling Point Elevation =
iKbm i=pieces Kb=boiling point constant m=molality
Freezing Point Depression =
iKfm i=pieces Kf= freezing point constant m=molality
endothermic
if the solution of a calorimeter gets cold the reaction is ______
exothermic
if the solution of a calorimeter gets warm the reaction is _______
interference
if waves of light pass through adjacent slits, the emerging circular waves interact with each other
p sublevel
l=1 (dumbbell shape)
f sublevel
l=3
Aristotle and Plato believed
matter is composed of earth, fire, water, air (ACCEPTED because they held more sway/more respected than democritus)
q =
mc delta T
heterogeneous mixture
not uniform throughout
Can Ether molecules form hydrogen bonds?
not with each other, resulting in low boiling points compared to those the analogous alcohols
-ane
one bond
Transition range
pH range at which indicator changes color, iln. changes from acidic indicating where the soln changes form acid to basic
photon
packet of energy
What is an alkyl group?
part of the alkane that is left when one of the hydrogen atoms is removed. they attach themselves to other groups in large organic molecules
Transverse waves run
perpendicularly
physical change that requires change in heat energy
phase change
Buffer
resist pH change
covalent bonds
result when atoms each contribute an electron to a shared pair
ionic bonds
result when atoms exchange electrons
metallic bonds
result when atoms free one or more valence electrons to the metal lattice
coordinate covalent bonds
result when one atom contributes two of its electrons to a shared pair
electron cloud
space where electrons are likely to be found
C= q/ (m x ∆T)
specific heat formula (g)
frequency
the # of waves that pass a given point in a specific time, usually 1 second
density
the ratio of mass to volume
T or F Carbon is able to form polar and non-polar covalent bonds by sharing its electrons
true
T/F Thompson, Rutherford, Bohr, and the Wave Model all believed in the electron
true
-ene
two bonds
composition reaction
two or more substances combine to form a new compound
Titration error
under/over shooting endpoint
Thermodynamics, from the most fundamental viewpoint, deals with:
(1) Energy in macroscopic systems. (2) Transfer of energy between macroscopic systems and their surroundings and (3) The effects of such transfers on the systems and their surroundings
who provided the first hint that atom is composed of even smaller particles than dalton, democritus, etc believed
(JJ) Thompson
who called electrons "corpuscles"?
(JJ) thompson
Oxidation - Alkalki Metal
+1
What is a chiral atom?
------ A chiral atom (stereocenter) is an atom that has four different groups attached to it.
How many chiral centers does a diastereomer need to have?
------ All diastereomers need to have at least 2 chiral centers.
What is the molecular geometry of H2O?
------ Bent
What is a structural (constitutional) isomer?
------ Different bonding arrangement of atoms. Atoms are bonded together in a different sequence. Example: 1-propanol and 2-propanol
How does molecular weight relate to water-solubilty?
------ In general, the larger the molecular weight, the lower the water solubility.
What shape of a molecule can make a molecule have a higher boiling point and why?
------ The more linear, the higher boiling point, due to a greater surface area than a branched molecule of the same molecular weight. The more surface area, the more chances for van der Waals attractions.
Oxidation - Halogen
-1
Oxidation - Oxygen
-2
what degree celsius does water freeze?
0
specific heat of water AKA C (subscript) water = ? cal/gC
1
Calculate photons when given a specific λ and E
1. E=hλ
Sharpens of inflection
1. high conc., and low pka and pH gives sharper curve
Methods for preparing buffers
1. start w/ WA solun. and pH meter add SB until desired pH, dilute to line 2. start w/ WB and pH meter add SA until desired pH, dilute to line 3. add WA and conj. base in nearly equal conc.
WATER: C(subscript)vapor=? (include unit)
1.84 J/g degree C
Tetrahedral-Tetrahedral
109.5 sp3
Trigonal planar-Trigonal planar
120 sp2
Trigonal planar-bent
120 sp2 (1 lone pair)
Trigonal bipyramidal-Trigonal bipyramidal
120 & 90 sp3d
Linear
180 sp
Trigonal bipyramidal-linear
180 sp3d (3 lone pairs)
[H+][OH-] =
1E-14
What are diols?
2 OH groups on adjacent carbons.
What is Ethylene?
2 carbon alkene called ethene
The speed of light is
2.998 x 10^8 m/s
WATER: deltaHvap= ? (include unit)
2260 J/g
What is Propylene?
3 carbon alkene called propene
speed of light (c)
3.00 x 10⁸ ms⁻¹, maximum speed of any and all motion; electromagnetic waves travel at this speed
WATER: deltaHfus= ? (include unit)
334 J/g
Light has what kind of nature, consisting of what?
A dual nature that is waves and particles
electromagnetic radiation
A form of energy exhibiting wavelike behavior as it travels through space; can be described by wavelength, frequency, amplitude, and speed.
Describe Phenols
Alcohol on a benzene ring. Used as a medical antiseptic that numbs skin. Name ends with phenol not benzene
Describe the oxidation of aldehydes
Alcohols can be oxidized to aldehydes or ketones. Aldehydes go to carboxylic acid. Aldehyde oxidation is H bonded to carbonyl carbon is replaced with OH group
What is Dehydration?
Alcohols undergo a loss of water on treatment with a strong acid. Completed by heating. OH group is lost from 1 carbon and H is lost from an adjacent carbon to yield an alkene
Boiling points in order of highest to lowest
Alcohols, amines, aldehydes/ketones, alkanes/alkenes/alkynes
What are the 5 carbonyl groups?
Aldehyde, Ketone, Carboxylic Acid, Ester, and Amide
the mass of an atom; the combined mass of the protons and neutrons in an atom
Atomic Mass
the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom of a given element
Atomic Number
any fluid with a pH above 7.0 indicating the presence of more hydroxide ions than hydrogen ions
Base
Robert Milikan
Behavior of charged oil drops
Dichromate
C r 2 O 7 -2
Chromate
C r O 4 -2
Acetate
C2H3O2 -1
Acetate
C2H3O2-
Relationship between F and C
C=(F-32)/1.8
ozone depletion
CFC propellants are released from old aerosol spray cans
Case 1 t-test
Comparison of a true value to an experimental mean
a substance composed of atoms of different elements is specific ratios; held together by ionic bonds
Compound
What are heterocycles?
Compounds with atoms other than C in a ring
What are amides?
Compounds with nitrogen directly attached to a carbonyl carbon.
Linear Range
Concentration range from the lowest to highest quantifiable that give linear response
Systematic error
Consistent and reproducible error
What is Tollens Reagent
Consists of silver ion in aqueous ammonia. Treatment of aldehyde with reagent rapidly yeilds the carboxylic acid anion and metallic silver
a strong bond formed when two atoms share electrons
Covalent Bond
heat (temp. change) and pH can change the shape of a protein
Denaturation
Subshells
Describes the shape of an electron's orbital
Case 3 t test
Determines statistical difference between two methods where one trail of each sample is examined
Internal Standard
Different substance as the analyte
Dielectric constant
Dimensionless number that indicates the factor by which capacitance is increased when a dielectric is placed in between the plates of a capacitor, given by: C' = KC C' is the new capacitance.
carbohydrates formed by two monosaccharides joining together
Disaccharide
Alkenes have a _____ bond
Double - between two carbon atoms
What is Plancks equation?
E=hV or energy in one photo=planck constant*frequency
What is Resonance?
Each C-C bond is intermediate between a single bond and double bond.
When bonds are broken
Energy is absorbed
sugar made by plants during photosynthesis; monosaccharide
Glucose
sugar used as energy storage in animals, found in the liver and in muscles; polysaccharide
Glycogen
Ernest Rutherford
Gold foil - discovery of the nucleus
Solvent programming
Gradient- nonpolar to polar HPIC- polar vs. nonpolar eq. Isocratic- detection depends on nature w/ mobile phase expeditious way w/ good resolution
Hydrogen Carbonate
H C O 3 -1
Delta H =
H(products) - H(reactants)
Strong Acids
HCl HBr HI HNO3 HClO4 H2SO4
What is a hydroxyl group?
Hydroxyl groups have one hydrogen paired with one oxygen atom . Symbolized OH
qauntitative
Identification of the concentration of an analyte in a sample
Qaulitative
Identification of what chemical species are present in a sample
Second Law of Thermodynamics
If a process is spontaneous in one direction, then it cant be spontaneous in the reverse direction
Vander Waals forces
Intra molecular forces a bonding force that is 1000 times stronger that inter molecular forces
an atom that carries an electrical charge, positive or negative, because it has either gained or lost an electron or electrons from its normal, stable configuration
Ion
a bond created by the transfer of one or more electrons from one atom to another
Ionic Bond
pH of buffers are dependent on
Ionic strength temp. but ignore b/c we chose variables that diminish effect
What is Benedicts reagent.
It contains blue copper. If aldehyde is present, it will turn red.
As λ increases, what happens to V?
It decreases
induced dipole, induced dipole
London Dispersion Forces. Weakest type of force only between non-polar molecules. The higher the molecular weight, the higher the force because of more electrons. Forces are also greater in less-compact structures if the molecular weight is the same, because of the additional surface area.
Osmotic Pressure (lambda) =
MRTi M=Molarity R = 0.0821 T = Absolute Temp i = pieces
Describe Methyl Alcohol.
Methanol. Wood Alcohol. Used as a solvent and start of formaldehyde. Colorless, miscible in water, and toxic. Causes blindness and death
What are functional group isomers?
Molecular formula contains atoms other than carbon and hydrogen, the consitutuional isomer is obtained.
a group of atoms held together by a covalent bond
Molecule
Molality =
Moles of Solute / mass of solvent in kg
Mole Fraction
Moles of Substance / Total Moles in Solution
the simplest carbohydrates and the building blocks of more complex carbohydrates
Monosaccharide
"+" Delta S
More Disorder
What is Zaitsevs Rule?
More substituted alkene will be favored, result of equilibrium process that is operating; the less table form is more likely to revert to the cation.
What is the Curved Arrow formalism?
Movement is depicted by curved arrows. Single is 1 electron. Double is movement of 2 elections
How do you name Alkenes or Alkynes?
Name the parent compound. Longest chain containing double/triple bonds. Add suffix -ene or -yne. Then number carbon atoms in the mainchain so that those with multiple bonds have the lowest index numbers possible
How do you name Alkanes?
Named by counting the # of carbon atoms and adding family suffix -ane. No prefix needed.
How do you name ethers?
Named by identifying the two organic groups and adding the word ether
What is an alkaloid?
Naturally occurring Nitrogen-containing compounds isolated from a plant; usually basic, bitter, and poisonous.
Anions
Negative molecules, larger than original atoms
the neutral charge subatomic particle of an atom; found in the atoms nucleus
Neutron
Soluble
Nitrate, Chlorate, Perchlorate, Acetate, Chloride, Bromide, Iodide, Sulfate
What are properties of ammonium salts?
Odorless, white, chrystalline solids that are more soluble than neutral amines.
Resistance
Opposition within any material to the movement and flow of charge: R = ρ L/A L = length of the conductor, A = cross-sectional area, ρ = resistivity (intrinsic to material)
How to name substituents on Benzene Rings.
Ortho-1,2. Meta-1,3. Para-1,4.
OIL RIG
Oxidation is Lose, Reduction is Gain
What is an Ether?
Oxygen bonded with 2 organic groups
Phosphate
P O 4 -3
Raoult's Law =
P=XP(not)
van't Hoff Factor
PIECES!!!!
What are properties of Alcohols?
Polar, hydrogen bonding occurs, straight chain alcohols with up to 12 carbons are liquid. Hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts. Has a larger hydrophobic part.
complex carbohydrates formed by three or more monosaccharides joining together
Polysaccharide
Cations
Positive molecules, smaller than original atoms
Reagent Blank
Prepared with all the same set of solutions as sample
Method Blank
Prepared with all the same steps as the sample
Vapor Pressure
Pressure exerted from molecules in order to escape a solid and to become a liquid
Describe Acetic Acid
Primary organic compound of vinegar.
What are the 4 possible substitution patterns?
Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, and Quaternary
heat of fusion equation:
Q=m x deltaHfus (fus is subscript)
vaporization equation:
Q=m x deltaHvap (vap is subscript)
How do you name Carboxylic Acid?
Replacing -e at end with -oic acid
Method gauge precisions
Replicate samples
What is Acetal Hydrolysis
Reversal required an acid catalyst and a large quantity of water to drive the reaction back towards aldehyde or ketone
1/λ=R (1/n₁²-1/n₂²)
Rydberg equation (R=1.0968x10⁷ m⁻¹)
Sulfate
SO4 2-
Constant error
Same magnitude for different sized measurements
a fat which has no double bonds; solid at room temperature; animal fats
Saturated fat
What is an elimination reaction?
Saturated reactant yields an unsaturated product by losing.
Describe Acetal formation
Small amount of acid catalyst is added to reaction of alcohol with aldehyde or ketone the hemiacetal initially formed is converted to an alcohol. Acetal is a compound that has 2 ether like groups bonded to what was the carbonyl carbon group
Melting
Solid to Liquid
a substance that is being dissolved in a gas or liquid
Solute
Buffer
Solution designed to resist changes in pH by containing a mixture of weak acid or base
the gas or liquid in which the substance is dissolved
Solvent
The general eultion problem is solved by ______ and _____ programming.
Solvent and temp.
What are properties of phenols?
Somewhat water soluble. higher boiling and melting points. Less soluble in water than alcohols.
"+" Cell Potential =
Spontaneous
"-" Delta G
Spontaneous
table sugar; disaccharide
Sucrose
Ionic Strenght
Sum of the products of concentration and charge of all ions in solution
Describe Acetaaldehyde
Sweet smelling but narcotic. Flammable liquid formed by the oxidation of ethynol.
T/F gases and plasma both have indefinite shape and volume
TRUE
1st ionization energy
The amount of energy required to remove the first outermost electron.
Specific Heat
The amount of heat required to raise the temperautre of one gram of a substance by one degree celcius
What are ethers?
The class of organic compounds that contain an oxygen connected to two alkyl groups
First Law of Thermodynamics
The energy of the universe is constant, energy can neither be created nor destoryed
Heat of Fusion
The energy that must be put into a solid to melt it
What is Markovnikovs Rule?
The major product arises from the H attaching to the double bond carbon that has the largest # of H atoms directely attached to it, and the x attaching to the carbon with less #.
Entropy, Delta S
The measure of the randomness or disorder of the system
What are some properties of alkanes?
The only intermolecular forces influencing them are weak London dispersion forces. First 4 alkanes are gases at room temp. 5-15 are liquids. 16 or more are low melting, waxy solids. Insoluble in water. odorless, colorless, tasteless, and nontoxic
Reject Null hypothysis
This is done when less than 5% chance that differences due to random error
Dalton's Law
Total pressure is equal to all the partial pressures of the individual gases
H atoms are oriented unusually; cause your body to produce more bad cholesterol
Trans-fat
a fat having three fatty acids linked to a glycerol molecule
Triglyceride
What is a phenyl?
When a benzene is a substituent group.
physical change
a change in matter from one form to another without a change in chemical properties
chemical change
a change that occurs when one or more substances change into entirely new substances with different properties
physical property
a characteristic of a substance that does not involve a chemical change
polyatomic ion
a charged group of covalently bonded atoms
reversible reaction
a chemical reaction in which the products re-form the original reactant
electromagnetic radiation
a form of energy that exhibits wavelike behavior as it travels through space
dimensional analysis
a mathematical technique that allows you to use units to solve problems involving measurements
weight
a measure of gravitational pull on matter
mass
a measure of the amount of matter in an object
Ksp
a measure of the extent of a salt's dissociation in a solution
mass spectrometry
a method for measuring the relative masses and abundances of atomic scale particles very precisely
Nuclear Force
a nonelectrical, non-gravitational force which holds the nucleus together
...
activation energy
Autoprotlysis
acts as acid and base
When diluting an acid...
add acid to water
unsaturated
add more solute and more will dissolve until the solution becomes saturated
e-
added to redox reaction to balance charge
H+
added to redox reaction to balance hydrogen
H2O
added to redox reaction to balance oxygen
group 1
alkali metals
quantum number (ml)
an integer from -l through 0 to +l. It prescribes the orientation of the orbital in the space around the nucleus. (number of possible ml= 2l+1)
angular momentum quantum number (l)
an integer from 0 to n-1. It is related to the shape of the orbital. (notice that n limits l) (the possible number of l values equals the number of n)
states of matter based on
arrangement, energy of, and distance between particles
Kirchhoff's Junction Rule
at any junction point, the sum of all currents entering the junction must equal the sum of all currents leaving the junction.
Ligand
atom attached to species of interest
What is a functional group?
atom/group within a molecule that has a characteristic physical and chemical behavior
decreases; increases
atomic radius ______ from left to right and ______ from top to bottom
Dalton's Atomic Theory
atoms can neither be created nor destoryed
instantaneous rate or relationship between concentration and time
basic experimental techniques for studying reaction dynamics involve determining the ________.
Base line spectrum
blank or reference
who said the electrons orbit
bohr
H He⁺
bohr model is only successful in explaining the electron behavior of ____ and ____, which have only one electron
X-ray
bond breaking
nonpolar-covalent bond
bond in which the bonding electrons are shared equally by the bonded atoms, resulting in a balanced distribution of electrical charge
What is the equation to calculate frequency or wavelength
c= v*λ
percentage error
calculated by subtracting the accepted value from the experimental value, dividing the difference by the accepted value, a then multiplying by 100
units to measure heat are
calorie, joule
amnt HEAT needed to raise 1kg of substance 1 degree (2 ANSWERS)
calorie, specific heat
instrument used to measure heat given off during chem reactions
calorimeter
qsystem= -qwater
calorimeter heat of water and heat of system
Polyprotic acid
can accept or donate more than 1 proton
Random Error
can be caused by instrumental issues and can not be determined
What are properties of Amines?
can form H bonds with water. up to 6 carbons are soluble in water. Many have strong odors. They are weak bases
describe wave model
cannot determine exact location of electron (but approximate location can be found bc electrons have energy), has small positively charged nucleus surrounded by large region in which there are enough electrons to make atom neutral
JJ Thompson
cathode ray tube - atoms are composed of positive and negative charges
greater; higher
cations and anions with smaller atomic radii have ____ lattice energy; cations and anions with _____ charges have more lattice energy
smaller
cations are ___ than their parent atoms
ionic bonding
chemical bonding that results from the electrical attraction between cations and anions
molecular compound
chemical compound whose simplest units are molecules
octet rule
chemical compounds tend to form so that each atom, by gaining, losing, or sharing electrons, has an octet of electrons in its highest occupied energy level
Cis and Trans isomers
cis = on the same side trans = across the names refer to the arrangement of the functional groups around a double bond
Describe Formaldehyde
colorless gas with an odor. formed by incomplete combustion of hydrocarbon fuels and partly responsible for irritation by smog-air
chemical formula
combination of chemical symbols and #s to represent a substance
How are ammonium salts named?
combining the ion names.
ionic compound
composed of positive and negative ions that are combined so that the numbers of positive and negative charges are equal
What is an aldehyde?
compound that has a carbonyl group bonded to at least one H. RCHO. Always are the end of a carbon chain.
What is a Hydrocarbon?
compounds that consist of hydrogen and carbon atoms
isomer
compounds that have the same simple formula but different three-dimensional structures
What is an isomer?
compounds with same molecular formula, but with different connection.
all elements composed of atoms, atoms from same element are exactly alike (WRONG) and different from atoms of other elements, compounds are formed by joining atoms of 2 or more elements
dalton
whose theory became one of the foundations of modern chemistry
dalton
qualitative data
data the is descriptive
quantitative data
data the is numerical
Chemical Kinetics
deals with how fast chemical processes occur and the factors that determine reaction rates
Chemical Thermodynamics
deals with the determination of which chemical processes can occur, how far they can proceed and the factors important and relevant to this determination.
Spectator ions
decrease attractiveness towards one another solubility increases with presense
quantum
defined amount of energy (energy packet)
Precision
determined by relative standard deviation
Millikin's oil drop experiment
determined the charge of the electron through highest grade clock oil and electrons from X-ray that clung to positive charged oil drops- determined that electrons are some whole value of charge (Faraday constant)
Electrode
device through which electrons flow into or out of chemical species
Conj. acid base pair
differ by H+
concentration and rate
direct, if there is more reactants, particles will collide(react) at a faster rate
temp. and rate
direct, particles move faster when temp is higher so they will collide at a faster rate
quantum number (ms)
direction of spin (+1/2 or -1/2)
James Chadwick
discovered the neutron
Thompson's Cathode Ray Experiment
discovery of the electron (also the discovery that atoms are divisible into smaller particles)
What aldehyde is used to treat chronic alcoholism?
disulfiram it works by blocking the processing of alcohol in the body and inhibiting the enzyme acetaldehyde dehydrogenase. causing an unpleasant reaction when alcohol is consumed.
What are properties of ethers?
do not react with acids or bases. Highly flammable. In standing air, many ethers form explosive peroxides. Found in plant oils and in nature
Valence Electron Pair Repulsion (VSPER) Theory
each group of valence electrons around a central atom is located as far away as possible from others in order to minimize repulsion
depending on their energy, certain electrons are locked in certain energy levels in the __ ___
electron cloud
coordinate covalent bond
electron pair from one atom
ionic bonding
electron transfer that occurs between atoms with large differences in their tendencies to lose or gain electrons
Metal Ion indicators
endpoint indicator which change color upon complexation w/ metal ion
electron affinity
energy change accompanying the addition of 1 mole of electrons to 1 mol of gaseous atoms or ions (EA₁ is usually negative: releases energy, EA₂ is always positive: requires energy to overcome electrostatic repulsions)
law of conservation of energy means
energy is not created nor destroyed
emitted
energy must be _____ for an electron to move from one energy state in an atom to another energy state that is closer to the nucleus
absorbed
energy must be ______ for an electron to move from one energy state in an atom to another energy state that is more remote from the nucleus
bond energy
energy required to overcome covalent bonds
Back titration
excess EDTA can be titrated by another metal ion
diamagnetism
exhibited by a species with all electrons paired
paramagnetism
exhibited by a species with unpaired electrons
relative uncertainty
expressed as percentage
c = ∨ x λ
formula for speed of wave
Lewis Structures
formulas in which atomic symbols represent nuclei and inner-shell electrons, dot-pairs, or dashes and dots adjacent to only one atomic symbol represent unshared electrons
reduction
gain of e- (add H)
radon poisoning
gas seeps into basement from surrounding bedrock
deposition is __ to __
gas, solid (gases are DEPOSED into solids...they WERE flying high until they were kicked down onto solid ground)
uncertainty
giving an actual value to error
rutherford
gold foil experiment
Chromaticgram
graph showing chromatography detector responses as a function of elution time or volume
std curve
graph showing the response of an analytical technique to known quant. of an analyte
k= .693/t.₅
half life equation
Isoflurane
halogenated esther that was common used for inhalation anesthesia. Released about a decade after enflurane. A stereoisomer to enflurane
describe bohr's model
improvement on rutherford's (but still wrong), electrons placed in specific energy levels (following specific paths...this doesn't actually happen!)
What is Halothane?
in IA that is a alkyl halide. Its a halogenated hydrocarbon and was firsted used in 1956. It is nonflammable. Phased out in the 80's and 90's.
constant volume
in a bomb calorimeter, reactions are carried out at ________
Catalysts
increases the rate of chemical reaction without being consumed in the process
Reaction rate increases with _______ concentration of reactant
increasing
Reaction rate increases with
increasing temperature
Intensive properties
independent of the amount of material present. Examples are temperature, density and molar volume
structural formula
indicates the kind, number, arrangement, and bonds but not the unshared pairs
chemical formula
indicates the relative numbers of atoms of each kind in a chemical compound by using atomic symbols and numerical subscripts
energy within a substance
internal energy
Covalent bonding
involves equal or unequal sharing of electrons between atoms.
What is an ammounium salt?
ionic compound composed of an ammonium cation and an anion. an amine salt.
Ion exchange chromatography
ions can be separated by their electrostatic attraction for resins sites of opposite charge
EDTA
is a hexaprotic acid because it contains six ionizable H+
As the wavelength of a color increases, what happens to the energy?
it decreases
As the wavelength of a color increases, what happens to the frequency?
it decreases
Salt bridge
job is to maintain electrical neutrality by transporting ions
Rate =
k [A]^x [B]^y [C]^z
directly
kinetic energy of gas particles is _____ proportional to temperature
matter made of particles in continuous random motion
kinetic theory of matter
What it diethyl ether?
known as "ether" an organic compound in the ether class, colorless, highly volatile, flammable liquid that was one used as general anesthetic
s sublevel
l=0 (spherical)
d sublevel
l=2 (clover shape/dumbbell and do-nut)
polymer
large compound formed from combinations of many monomers
What are properties of alkenes or alkynes?
less dense than water, non-toxic, flammable. Alkenes display cis-trans isomerism. Chemically reaction at multiple bond. Non-polar, not soluble in water.
EDTA
ligand, from 1:1 complexes w/ metal ion acts as lewis base
blackbody radiation
light given off by a hot blackbody that led to Max Plank's quantization of energy in his equation E= nhv (later it followed that if an atom can only emit certain quantities of energy, then an atom can only have certain quantities of energy- photons)
Trendline
line that utilizes the difference between each data point and a perfect straight line
oxidation
loss of electrons (loss H)
Dim light has what kind of amplitude
low
properties of covalent compounds
low melting and boiling points; weak intermolecular attractions
ground state
lowest energy stage of an atom
tolerance
manufacturers stated uncertainty
absolute uncertainty
margin uncertainty associated w/ a measurement
change in thermal energy (Q) = equation in words?
mass times change in time times specific heat of substance (m x deltaT x C subscript p)
Open systems
matter and energy are exchanged by the system with the surroundings. Examples are the human body, organ systems with the human body and cells
de Broglie wavelength
matter behaves as though it moves in a wave (an object's wavelength is inversely proportional to its mass)
E= (energy)
mc^2 m= mass c= 3E8 m/sec (speed of light)
ground state
min. possible energy
GAS chromatography
mobile phase is gas temp. programming (ramping) isothermic (no ramping)
liquid chrom.
mobile phase is liquid Solvent programming isoelectric gradient solution
Chromatography
mobile phase is the one that migrates through the column or plane, while stationary phase does not
Thompson's plum pudding model
model of a spherical atom composed of diffuse positively charged matter in which electrons are embedded like raisins in plum pudding
n=
molar mass/empirical formula
mole percent
mole fraction x 100%
gaussion distrubution
more times experiment is repeated the more closely the results will approach an ideal smooth curve
What are characteristics of organic compounds
most are insoluble in water. Most are liquid or low melting solids at room temp and few are gases.
cubic closest and hexagonal closest packing
most efficient forms of packing that most metallic elements crystallize in
What are characteristics of thiols?
most outstanding characteristic is their odor. React with mild oxidizing agents to yield disulfides. Two thiols join, the H is lost, and bond forms between sulfers.
Quantum Shells
n= 1, 2, 3
acid vinegar
name: acetic acid formula: HC2H3O3
Cathode, in Electorylsis
neg. charge, the driving for the reaction is external applied voltage
energy of system =
negative energy of surroundings
Isolated systems:
neither energy (in any form) nor matter can exchange with the surroundings. An example: the universe as a whole, as it has no surroundings
molecule
neutral group of atoms that are held together by covalent bonds
do electrons whirl around randomly?
no
Adiabatic Systems
no heat transfer or mass transfer between the system and its surroundings; however, work may be done on the system by the surroundings (or vice versa). An example is a completely efficient thermos bottle
Pauli Exclusion principle
no two electrons in the same atom can have the same four quantum numbers
Pauli exclusion principle
no two electrons in the same atom can have the same set of four quantum numbers
group 8
noble gases
What is v?
nu is the frequency
bond order
number of electron pairs being shared by a pair of bonded atoms
coordination number
number of nearest neighbors surrounding an atom
atomic number
number of protons (Z)
mass number
number of protons and neutrons (nucleons) (A)
Ionic bonds
occurs between a metal and non metal when valence electrons are transferred to another atom
dynamic equilibrium
occurs even though the macroscopic view indicates constant, but seldom equal concentrations for each substance
absoption
occurs when a substance is taken up inside another varies by wavelenght
Inflection point
one at which derivative of slope
reference electrode
one of these devices that maintains a constant potential against which the potential of another half cell can be measured
What are Amines?
one or more organic groups bonded to nitrogen. Organic derivatives of ammonia.
spin quantum #
only two possible values (+1/2, -1/2), which indicate the two fundamental spin state of an electron in an orbital
s<p<d<f
order of sub level energies
Carboxylic acid
organic acid characterized by the presence of at least on carbonyl group. the formula is R-CO-OH These are acids because they can donate a proton to a solution (H+) the resulting anion has increased stability because the negative charge is equally distributed between oxygen atoms
Amines
organic compounds an functional groups that contain a basic nitrogen atom with a lone pair of electrons. Derivatives of ammonia.
Alcohols
organic compounds in which the hydroxyl functional group -OH is bound to a carbon atom. The alcohol molecule is polar. Alcohols of 5 or more carbons are insoluble in water because of the hydrocarbon chains dominance
Esters
organic compounds with the general formula R-CO-O-R. Formed by condensing an acid with an alcohol
a logarithmic scale that measures the concentration of hydrogen ions; acids = 1-6 neutral 7 base = 8-14
pH
Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation
pH = pKa + log [A-]/[HA]
4 states of matter - liquid gas solid AND?
plasma
JJ Thompson
plum pudding model, studied passage of electric current through gas that gave off rays of negatively charged particles (so the neg. charge came from WITHIN atom, and something smaller than atom had to exist. Also, since gas was neutral, had to be positively charged particle in atom but he never found it)
EQ point
point in titration at which the quant. of titrant is exactly sufficient for stoichiometric reaction w/ analyte
Dipole dipole forces
polarization that occurs between a polar molecule and a non polar molecule
Cathode, galvanic cell
pos. charge, the driving force for the reaction is spontaneous electrostatic attraction
di-
prefix for 2 alkyl groups
tri-
prefix for 3 alkyl groups
tetra-
prefix fro 4 alkyl groups
Standardization
process of determining concentration
Acids
produce H in water
bronstead-lowry acid
proton donor
confidence intervals
range of values within which there is a specified probability that true values lie
resonance
refers to bonding in molecules or ions that cannot be correctly represented by a single Lewis structure
calibration
relating the actual physical quant. to quant. indicated on the scale of an instrument
electronegativity
relative ability of a bonded atoms to attract the shared electrons
Factors of Chem thermodynamics
relevant factors are temperature, pressure, salt concentration and pH
How do you name Acetyl Groups?
replace the -ic at the end of acid with -oyl.
covalent bonding
results from the sharing of electron pairs between two atoms
meth
root for one carbon
prop
root for three carbons
eth
root for two carbons
microwave
rotation of molecules
who said nucleus was positively charged and tiny compared to whole atom?
rutherford
which three people/models account for the nucleus
rutherford, bohr, wave model
molecular formula
shows the actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule of compound
molecular formula
shows the types and numbers of atoms combined in a single molecule of a molecular compound
Is the charge of oxygen negative or positive?
sightly negative, and it therefore attracts positively charged ions
Ethers are polar or non polar?
slightly polar
Molecular Exclusion
small particles penetrate pores
sublimation is __ to __
solid, gas
What are properties of amides?
soluble in water and organic solvents. No basic like amines. Low-molecular weight unsubstituted are solids.
acid
solution with pH of 1
neutral
solution with pH of 7
homogeneous mixture
something that has a uniform structure of composition throughout
quantity
something that has magnitude, size, or amount; not the same as a measurement
oxidizing agent
species that contains element being reduced, gains electrons
reducing agent
species that contains element that is oxidized loses electrons
ability of substance to absorb heat energy
specific heat (greater mass of object, more heat absorbed)
Ohm's Law
states that potential difference = current X resistance, or V (volts) = I (amperes) X R (ohms)
law of multiple proportions
states that when two elements combine to form two or more compounds, the mass of one elements that combines with a given mass of the other is in the ratio of small whole numbers
angular momentum quantum #
symbolized by "l", indicates the shape of the orbital
magnetic quantum #
symbolized by "m", indicates the orientation of an orbital around the nucleus
principle quantum #
symbolized by "n", indicates the main energy level occupied by the electron
difference between temp and heat?
temperature is a MEASURE (of avg kinetic energy), heat is a TRANSFER (of energy)
Factors of Chemical Kinetics
temperature, concentration, salt concentration, pH and presence of catalysts.
mole
the SI base unit used to measure the amount of a substance whose number of particles is the same as the number of atoms of carbon in exactly 12g of carbon-12
volume
the amount of space occupied by an object
The half-life of a radioactive substance
the amount of time it takes for half of the substance to decay
Power
the amount of work done in a certain amount of time; the rate at which work is done; equals work divided by time and is measured in watts. Mechanical Power: P = W/t Electric Power: P = E/t
wavelength
the distance between corresponding points on adjacent waves
bond length
the distance between the nuclei of two bonded atoms
bond energy
the energy required to break a chemical bond and form neutral isolated atoms
photoelectric effect
the flow of current when monochromatic light shines of sufficient frequency (minimum value/threshold) shines on a metal plate
in equilibrium, the flow in =
the flow out
nuclear forces
the interaction that binds protons and neutrons, protons and protons, and neutrons and neutrons together in a neucleus
law of conservation of mass
the law that states the mass cannot be created or destroyed in ordinary chemical and physical changes
Wavelength is...
the length of one full cycle; the length from one crest to another
electrons penetrate
the lower an l value the more ____
molar mass
the mass in grams of 1 mole of a substance
molar mass
the mass of one mole of a pure substance
Electron Capture
the nucleus captures a low energy electron and combines it with a proton to form a neutron
Beta Emision
the nucleus changes a neutron into a proton and an electron and emits the electron
Positron Emission
the nucleus changes a proton into a neutron and and positron and emits the positron
Alpha Emission
the nucleus emits a particle that has the same constitution as a helium nucleus, with two protons and two neutrons
atomic number
the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
reduction
the oxidation number decreases becomes less +
oxidation
the oxidation number of an element increases more +
combustion reaction
the oxidation reaction of an element or compound, in which energy as heat is released
percent composition
the percentage by mass of each element in a compound
diffraction
the phenomenon that describes when a wave strikes the edge of an object, it will bend around it
refraction
the phenomenon that describes when light passes from one medium into another, its speed changes (the wave will continue at a different angle)
electrolysis
the process in which an electric current is used to produce a chemical reaction, such as the decomposition of water
Amides
the product of a dehydration reaction between carboxylic acid and an amine.
aufbau principle
the rule that electrons occupy the orbitals of lowest energy first
solid
the state of matter in which volume and shape of a substance are fixed
liquid
the state of matter that has a definite volume but not a definite shape
Heisenburg's uncertainty principle
the statement that, due to the laws of quantum mechanics, it is impossible to simultaneously exactly measure a particle's position and momentum or to exactly measure a particle's energy for a finite amount of time.
Organic Chemistry
the study of the structure, properties and reaction of carbon compounds
formula mass
the sum of the average atomic masses of all atoms represented in a formula (molecule, formula unit, ion)
Kirchhoff's Loop Rule
the sum of the changes in potential around any closed path of a circuit must be 0 (conservation of energy).
mass number
the sum of the numbers of protons and neutrons that make up the nucleus of an atom
melting point
the temperature at which a substance changes from a solid to a liquid
Filtration
the use of a filter to separate a solid from a liquid
average atomic mass (amu)
the weighted average of the masses of all naturally occurring isotopes of an element
entropy
thermodynamic quantity that expresses the disorder or randomness in a system
-yne
three bonds
The minimum energy to eject an e- is the...
threshold or binding energy
conditioning buret
to make only your base to reduce probability of contamination
rinsing inside of flask
to make sure all the base is at the bottom of flask
supersaturated
unstable relative to the saturated solution; if you add a "seed" crystal or solute, or just tap the container, the excess solute crystallizes immediately, leaving a saturated solution
How do you name cycloalkanes?
use cycloalkane name as parent. Identify and number substituents. Go alphabetical priority. Give substituents lowest number
Potentiometry
use of electrode potential difference to measure ion conc.
Amphoteric
used for both acid and conj. base
Auxillary complexing agents
used to bind M strong enough to prevent formation of OH, but weak enough to allow EDTA complexation
properties of covalent network solid compounds
very hard and big melting; covalent bonds throughout the substance (diamond=hardest known natural substance)
infrared
vibration of molecules
The color with the shortest wavelength
violet
Isoelectric pH
when average charge of solution is 0
constructive interference
when crests of waves coincide in phase and the amplitudes add together
Isoionic pH
when pure neutral polyprotic acid dissolved in water
destructive interference
when the crests of one wave coincides with the troughs of another wave and the amplitudes cancel
Mass defect
when the mass of the nucleus is less thatn the sum of the masses of its constituent protons and neutrons
equilibrium
when water is boiling, there is an ______ between the rate at which the molecules are escaping the surface and the rate at which they are condensing
how to choose indicator
whose transition range overlaps steepest part of the titration curve
With atomic numbers of 60 or greater....
you can expect to see Alpha Emission
...
zeroth order reaction equation
osmotic pressure
π=MRT
What type of hybrid orbital does a linear structure have?
• sp hybrids: Linear Structures: o sp hybrids share characteristics evenly between s and p orbitals. The other unhybridized p orbitals remain the same. The front lobes of the sp orbitals point in opposite directions (at 180 ° ). The back lobes also point in opposite directions. A linear structure is created. o In general: The overlap of the lobes of atoms creates bonds; large front lobes overlap more completely, resulting in a relatively stronger bond.
0
∆G at equilibrium
boiling point elevation
∆Tb=Kbm
freezing point depression
∆Tf=Kfm
What are the ionization energy trends on the periodic table?
------ - DOWN a Group: Ionization energy DECREASES as you go DOWN a Group because the farther the valence electrons are from the nucleus (pulling power of the protons) the less energy it costs another atom to steal them. - ACROSS a Period: Ionization energy INCREASES as you go ACROSS a Period because atoms are getting ever closer to that magic "octet" rule for stability via the Noble Gas configuration. In plain speak - your frequent buyer punch card gets one step closer to the freebie each time you move closer to the right of the Periodic Table so you guard those punches more carefully. The atomic radius is getting smaller, too, so those protons do a great job of holding on tighter.
What is ionization energy?
------ - It can be defined as being the energy required to remove the outermost electron from a gaseous atom. - A "gaseous atom" means an atom that is all by itself, not hooked up to others in a solid or a liquid. When enough energy is added to an atom the outermost electron can use that energy to pull away from the nucleus completely (or be pulled, if you want to put it that way), leaving behind a positively charged ion. That is why it's called ionization, one of the things formed in the process is an ion. The ionization energy is the exact quantity of energy that it takes to remove the outermost electron from the atom. - If the ionization energy is high, that means it takes a lot of energy to remove the outermost electron. If the ionization energy is low, that means it takes only a small amount of energy to remove the outermost electron.
What is a stereoisomer? What are the two types of stereoisomers?
------ - Stereoisomers: atoms are bonded together in the same sequence, but have a different 3-D arrangement in space.Two types: a. Enantiomers: non-superimposible mirror images. b. Diastereomers: stereoisomers that are not enantiomers: not superimposible and not mirror images.
What is the Third Law of Thermodynamics?
------ - The entropy of a perfect crystal is zero when the temperature of the crystal is equal to absolute zero (0 K). - The entropies of all perfectly crystalline substances are the same at T = 0.
Does the presence of a catalyst change the equilibrium constant of a reaction?
------ - The presence of a catalyst does not change the equilibrium constant of a reaction.
- How does the presence of hydrogen-bonding change the water-solubility?
------ - The presence of hydrogen-bonding increases water-solubility dramatically.
What does Le Chatelier's principle say about the effect of temperature?
------ - We can expect a reaction to respond to a lowering of temperature by releasing heat and to respond to an increase of temperature by absorbing heat. - When the temperature is raised, the equilibrium composition of an exothermic reaction will tend to shift towards reactants; the equilibrium composition of an endothermic reaction will tend to shift towards products.
What does Le Chatelier's principle say about the effect of compression?
------ - When a system at equilibrium is compressed, the composition of a gas-phase equilibrium adjusts so as to reduce the number of molecules in the gas phase.
What the are the 3 types of isomers?
------ 1. Structural (Constitutional) isomers 2. Stereoisomers: has two types a. Enantiomers b. Diastereomers 3. Geometric Isomers (also know as cis and trans isomers)
How does molecular weight relate to boiling point?
------ In general, the larger the molecular weight, the higher the boiling point.
What is a strong acid? Give some examples of strong acids.
------ Strong acid - completely ionized in aqueous solution Examples:HCl, HBr, HI, HNO3, HClO4, and H2SO4
What is a strong base? Give some examples of strong bases.
------ Strong base - completely ionized in aqueous solution Examples:LiOH, NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2, and Ba(OH)2
What is systematic error?
------ Systematic error can be caused by an imperfection in the equipment being used or from mistakes the individual makes while taking the measurement. A balance incorrectly calibrated would result in a systematic error. Consistently reading the buret wrong would result in a systematic error.
What is the molecular geometry of ClF3?
------ T-shaped
What is the molecular geometry of CH4?
------ Tetrahedral
What shape of a molecule can make a substance less water-soluble and why.
------ The more linear, the less water-soluble, due to a greater non-polar surface area than a branched molecule of the same molecular weight.
What does the position of the peak in NMR tell us?
------ The position of the peak (its ppm value, or "chemical shift") tells us something about what type of atom it is and what it's bonded to.
How does the presence of hydrogen-bonding change the boiling point?
------ The presence of hydrogen-bonding increases boiling point dramatically. Alcohols, 1* and 2* amines and amides, and carboxylic acids all hydrogen-bond with other molecules of themselves. Dipole-dipole attractions between C=O's increase boiling point to a lesser extent.
What is the molecular geometry of PF5?
------ Trigonal bipyramidal
What is Le Chatelier's principle?
------ When a subsystem at equilibrium is subjected to a disturbance, the composition of the system adjusts so as to tend to minimize the effect of the disturbance.
What is the molecular geometry of BeF2?
------ linear
What is the molecular geometry of CO?
------ linear C triple bond O with 2 e- on both atoms
Describe Hemiacetal formation.
Aldehydes and ketones undergo addition reaction in which an alcohol combines with the carbonyl carbon and oxygen. Hemis have both an alcohol-like OH group and an ether like OR group bounded to a once was the carbonyl carbon atom. Often too unstable to be isolated.
a secondary structure of a protein
Alpha helix/ Beta-pleated sheet
How to name an amino group as a substituent
Amino- is used as a prefix in the name of the compound
What is the systemic name of Ciniline?
Aminobenzene
multiple bonds
double/triple bonds
covalent bonding
electron sharing that occurs between atoms with little differences in their tendencies to lose or gain electrons; electron sharing between pairs of atoms leads to strong localized bonds within individual molecules; weak intermolecular forces, strong intramolecular forces
visible and Ultraviolet
electronic excitation
Quantized
electrons can only exist at specific energy levels, separated by specific intervals
plum pudding model
electrons floating in positively charged material
hund's rule
electrons in orbitals of the same energy do not pair until they have to
When atoms absorb energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation....
electrons jump to higher energy levels
Paramagnetic
elements do not have all their electrons spin paired
Diamagnetic
elements have all of their electrons spins paired
highest ionization energy
elements in the upper right of periodic chart
Electrical Potential
energy needed to bring 1C of (+) to the point electrons attracted to positive charged region electrons must be forced to neg. charged regions
ionization energy
energy required for the complete removal of 1 mol of electrons from 1 mol of gaseous atoms or ions (increases across a period, decreases down a group)
Closed systems
energy transfer occurs between the system and its surroundings; however no transfer of matter occurs. An example would be the living space in a space capsule operating with 100% efficient recycling. A more prosaic example would be boiling water contained in a sealed bottle
What type of hybrid orbital does a tetrahedral structure have?
sp 3 hybrids: Tetrahedral structures: o The 2s orbital is mixed with all three of the 2p orbitals, creating four hybridized sp 3 orbitals. Each of these has 25% s and 75% p character; electron repulsion favors a tetrahedral shape, so the orbitals are 109.5 ° apart from each other. (Figure 1-18 from Vollhardt) o Hybrid orbitals can overlap with any atomic orbital of a different atom to form a bond; this is seen with the substitution of a chlorine atom in place 2 p z . . of a hydrogen atom on methane. They may also contain lone pairs—this explains the geometry of water, which is sp 3 hybridized due to the lone pair, which occupies one of the four hybrid orbitals. Again, the bond angle is slightly distorted due to the electron repulsion of this lone pair. o Bond angles are distorted because of these changes; typical bond angles of certain hybridization are often increased or decreased due to the relative electronegativitie
quantum numbers
specify the properties of atomic orbitals and the properties of electrons in orbitals
Galvanic Cell
spont. RXN generates electricity by exchange of e-
excited state
state in which an atom has a higher potential energy that it has in its ground state
Heisenberg uncertainty principle
state that it is impossible to determine simultaneously both the position and velocity of an electron or any other particle
mass balance
statement of the conservation of matter
Law of Definite Proportions
states that a chemical compound always contains the same element in the exact proportion by weight/mass
T-test
statistical test used to decide if the results of two experiments are within a certain probability
reaction mechanism
steps of intermediate events of a reaction
neutrons
subatomic particle with a neutral charge
Titrant
substance added to analyte in a titration
bronstead-lowry base
substance that accepts protons
Resistors
substance that can change electric current into heat or light (like the filament in a light bulb.)
Basic Anhydride
substance that combines with water to form a base
Acid Anhydride
substance that combines with water to form an acid
Chromatograhpy
substances are separated by the differences in the degree to which they are absorbed onto a surface.
larger
substances with low molecular mass and/or little interaction among particles will yield a ______ vapor pressure
End point
sudden change in physical property
acid rain
sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides are released into air
charge balance
sum of positive charges in solution equals the sum on neg. charge in solution
molecular mass
x (empirical formula) = molecular formula
electromagnetic spectrum (decreasing energy)
x-ray, uv-ray, visible light, infrared light, microwaves, tv, radio waves
If an isotope's mass number is greater than its atomic weight...
you can expect beta decay
If an isotope's mass number is less than its atomic weight....
you can expect positron emission or electron capture
-2.18x10⁻¹⁸(1/n²final- 1/n²initial)
∆E (for energy levels)= (more negative= more energy= electron is further from the nucleus)
vapor pressure lowering
∆P= Xsolvent x P°solvent
∆Hrxn=
∑BEreactants-∑BEproducts
∆Hrxn=
∑∆Hreactant bonds broken + ∑∆Hproduct bonds formed
