Chemistry 11H Final
What are triprotic acids?
Acids that can give up three H+.
What are diprotic acids?
Acids that can give up two H+.
What are monoprotic acids?
Acids that can only give up one H+.
What is the Arrhenius definition for acids and bases?
Acids: Substances that produce H+ (H3O+) in water Bases: Substances that produce OH- in water
How does electron affinity change along a row? Down a column?
Across a row, the higher the core charge, so the greater the electron affinity, as the atom has more pull on electrons. Down a column, new subshells are added, so floating electrons are farther and more shielded, therefore the atom generally has less electron affinity to take in that electron that is floating around. *This is only a general trend; it rarely follows this exactly*.
What is the standard enthalpy of formation of any element in its most stable form?
0.
What defines a Brønsted acid and Brønsted base?
A Brønsted acid is an H proton donor (will have an extra H) and a Brønsted base is an H proton acceptor (will have room for another H).
What is a cation?
A positive ion, removing an electron.
What is an anion?
A negative ion, adding an electron.
If an electron were to be added to argon, what ring would it be added in?
A new 4s ring, not a 3d ring.
What occurs in a titration?
A solution of accurately known concentration is added gradually to another solution of unknown concentration until the chemical reaction between the two solutions is complete. *(Often, an acid is slowly added to a base until the indicator changes colour)*
What is a compound?
A substance composed of atoms of two or more elements chemically united in fixed proportions, and can be separated by chemical means.
What is an element?
A substance that cannot be separated into simpler substances by chemical means.
Can NH3 be an acid?
No, it is always a base. Look at it on the right side of the acid-base table, don't consider it on the left side as it is the product of a non-reversible reaction so it isn't really an acid.
Can H+ easily separate from C? What does this mean about acid-base reactions?
No, it is very difficult. If an H+ is attached to a C, it will not be donated to a base.
What is the distinctive sign of a redox reaction?
Oxidation numbers change.
How is an oxidation half reaction shown? A reduction half reaction?
Oxidation: Element on one side, ion and electrons on other side (from element to ion, it is losing electrons). Always balance. Reduction: Element and electrons on one side, ion on other side (from element to ion, it is gaining electrons). Always balance.
What is the proportionality for Boyle's Law?
P ∝ 1/V - As V increases, the P decreases.
What are conjugate pairs?
Pairs of an acid and base on either side of the reaction that correspond with each other. The acid is the one with the extra H, the base is the one that can accept the H.
How do you determine if a compound is an acid base, or another compound?
Separate it into its components, then determine from there and look at data tables if necessary.
What causes something to be an electrolyte?
Separating into positive and negative ions, in other words disassociating.
What quantum number do electrons in the same shell share? In the same subshell? In the same orbital?
Shell - Share "n" Subshell - Share "n" and "l" Orbital - Share "n" and "l" and "ml"
What do "s" orbitals look like?
Simply one (*Because 1 orbital*) sphere.
For light, how can "v" be related to "c" and "⅄"?
Since *c = ⅄ · v* as c is the speed of light, v is (c/⅄).
What is a disproportionation redox reaction?
The same element is simultaneously oxidized and reduced. It will appear twice in the products side.
What does the "l" quantum number, or sub-shell number, define?
The shape of the "volume" of space that the electron occupies.
What is a quantum?
The smallest quantity of energy that can be emitted or absorbed in the form of electromagnetic radiation.
What is the direction for up spin?
Clockwise.
Do atoms gain or lose energy as they move closer to the nucleus? Move farther?
Closer (down): Lose energy Farther (up): Gain energy
What is the formula for pressure?
Force / Area
What is the activated complex? What does it represent?
It is the highest pint on a schematic of an exothermic or endothermic process. It shows the point where all of the reactants are broken up but together.
What is the core charge? What is another name for this?
It is the positive charge of the nucleus minus the negative charge of any inner-shell electrons. It is also known as the Effective Nuclear Charge.
How is a "d" shell graphed on a photoelectron spectrum?
It is very close to the next "s" shell, partially within the same peak. For example, 3d and 4s are very close together, as the energies are very similar.
What does isoelectronic mean?
It means that is has the same electron configuration as something but a *different number of protons* (so different IE, et cetera).
What would a negative electron affinity mean? What is an example?
It means that you have to give the electron energy in order to accept the new electron, meaning that it does not want that electron. Noble gases are an example.
If a question asks for the [Mg+], what does that mean?
It means the concentration of Mg+ ions in the solution.
What does ground state mean?
It means the electron is just an atom as it is on the periodic table, plain. It is not excited and is not an ion.
What is the magnetic moment? What defines how high or low it is?
It measures how strong the attraction of an atom is to a magnetic field. It depends on how many electrons are unpaired in an atom. The more electrons unpaired, the higher the magnetic moment is.
What is the restriction of the calculations of energy levels of electrons in relation to their quantum number?
It only works with Hydrogen, *single electron atoms*.
What does a mass spectrometer do?
It separates an element into individual light to heavy isotopes, and measures the quantity of each weight to determine abundance of each isotope.
What happens to something when it dissolves?
It separates into ions.
What would the number be for the mole bridge of [Ba(OH)2 x 8H2O]? What would its atomic mass be?
It would just be 1, because even though there is a coefficient of 8 on the H2O, the entire thing all together only has a coefficient of 1. The atomic mass would use the 8 in front of the H2O, so that H2O (18.0g/mol) would be multiplied by 8 and added to the first part [Ba(OH)2].
What is the formula for dilutions? Can it be used for titrations?
MiVi = MfVf No, it cannot be used for titrations.
What quantity is one mole?
6.022 E23
What is the limiting reagent?
The reactant that is used up first in the reaction.
What is the y-value on photoelectron spectrums?
The relative number of electrons that can be ejected at that energy level.
What is the scientific notation of the multiplication from base-unit to centi?
10^-2
What is the scientific notation of the multiplication from base-unit to milli?
10^-3
What is the scientific notation of the multiplication from base-unit to nano?
10^-9
What is the scientific notation of the multiplication from base-unit to kilo?
10^3
How many electrons can an orbital hold?
2.
What is the lowest quantum number for energy levels?
2.
What is important to remember about drawing photoelectron spectrums, in terms of order?
"3d" spikes will come before "4s" spikes as they still have a higher ionization energy, although they are in a different order for electron configurations.
What is another term for Δ°Hrxn?
"Heat Released Per Mole of Reaction"
What is the best way to write electron configurations to make sure that the order is correct?
"Walk" along the periodic table, with the 1s shell being the first two at the very top, and then the "p" shells being the left two electrons in the table, the "d" shells being the middle block, the "p" shells being the right electrons, and the "f" shells being the removed electrons at the bottom. You walk along the periodic table and fill up each shell until you reach the element that you are writing the configuration for.
How do you find percent composition of an element in a compound?
(Subscript of Element x AMU of Element) / (AMU of Compound) Essentially, total mass of all of the element in the compound divided by weight of the compound.
What is the formula for ionization energy? What are q1 and q2? What sign do ionization energies always have?
(k·q1·q2) / d k is a constant, q1 and q2 are the charges of the two objects (like electron and core charge), and d is distance from the nucleus.
*Do many practice problems from this unit.*
*Do many practice problems from this unit.*
*Have extensive practice with titration calculations, and ESPECIALLY redox titration calculations.*
*Have extensive practice with titration calculations, and ESPECIALLY redox titration calculations.*
*Learn redox titrations.*
*Learn redox titrations.*
What units of distance *must* be inputted into all of the wave and energy equations, and what units will come out?
*Metres*, not nanometres.
*Note: This Quizlet does not contain Unit 9, 10, 11, or 12.*
*Note: This Quizlet does not contain Unit 9, 10, 11, or 12.*
*Remember sig figs and basic rounding.*
*Remember sig figs and basic rounding.*
*When ordering atoms from greatest to least in terms of ionization energy or electron affinity, for example, be sure to remember the exceptions*
*When ordering atoms from greatest to least in terms of ionization energy or electron affinity, for example, be sure to remember the exceptions*
What are the possible values for the ms quantum number, and what do each mean?
+1/2 = Spin Up -1/2 = Spin Down
What is the name of the Group 1A Elements? Are there reactions exothermic or endothermic? Do they gain or lose electrons in reactions? What is their pattern for level of reactivity? What are three qualitative properties?
- Alkali Metals - Exothermic reactions - Lose electrons - As you move down the column, they become MORE reactive, as it is easier to remove the farther electrons - Soft, low melting point, and not shiny but not dull
What is the name of the Group 2A Elements? What do they react with, and what does this produce? What type of ion do they form? What is a qualitative property? How do they compare in reactivity compares to Group 1A, and why? (2)
- Alkaline Earth Metals - From +2 Ion - React with water to form hydrogen gas - Soft metals - Less reactive, as they have a full "s" shell and Group 1A does not AND because they have a greater core charge, meaning less likely to lose an electron, meaning less reactive.
What are the main physical properties of non-metals? (4)
- Dull - Poor conductors - Brittle - Could be solid, liquid, or gas
What does Bohr's Model of the Atom state? (2)
- Electrons can only have specific energy values in an electron (energy levels) - Light is emitted as an electron moves from one energy level to a lower energy level
What is the shorthand way of writing electron configurations?
- Find the closest noble gas that occurs BEFORE your element - Write that noble gas in brackets - Show the rest of the shells from that point, up to where your atom is Example: Ge = [Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p2
What are the main chemical properties of non-metals? (4)
- Gain electrons easily - Make anions (IMPORTANT) - Form acidic oxides - Higher electronegativities
What are the trends for electronegativity? What is the exception?
- Increases from left to right, as core charge increases - Decreases going down a column, as the outer ring is farther so the electrons can not be pulled as close to the nucleus, meaning less attraction - Exception is Noble Gases, who have undefined electronegativity as they do not want electrons
What are the main chemical properties of metals? (4)
- Lose electrons easily - Make cations (IMPORTANT) - Form basic oxides - Lower electronegativities
What are the main physical properties of metals? (6)
- Shiny - Conductors - High melting point - High density - Malleable - Usually solid
What are the qualitative properties of bases?
- Taste bitter - Feel slipper - Cause colour changes in plant dyes
What are main qualitative properties of acids?
- Taste sour - Cause colour changes in plant dyes
What are the steps to calculating a titration if given the molarity of substance in burette, volume of substance in burette used, volume of substance in erlenmeyer flask, and asked to find the molarity of substance in erlenmeyer flask?
- Use the volume and molarity of substance in burette to find moles of this substance - Use the chemical reaction equation between the two substances to develop a mole bridge, to find the moles of the second substance - Divide the moles of this substance by the volume (in litres) of this substance, to find the molarity
What are the four units for pressure? How do you convert between them?
1 Pascal (Pa) = 1 N/m^2 1 ATM = 101,325 Pa (101.3 kPa) 1 mmHg = 1/760 ATM 1 Torr = 1/760 ATM
What is 1 AMU equal to?
1 gram/mol
What are the steps to determining empirical formula from percent composition of a compound? What is the only difference when you already have masses instead of percent composition? What is one step you skip when looking for molecular formula?
1. Assume 100g 2. Multiply each number of g by molar mass to find number of moles of each element 3. Divide each number of moles by the smallest number of moles 4. This will be the subscript number for the element 5. If the numbers do not come out to whole-number values, multiply all of them until they are all whole-number values. When you already have masses, simply find the mole values from these masses rather than assuming 100g and worrying about percent composition. When looking for molecular formula, do not divide by smallest number of moles (don't reduce the fractions at all).
What are the steps to determining the amount of excess reagent?
1. Determine limiting and excess reagent. 2. Convert amount of limiting reagent used in the reaction to the amount of the excess reagent used in the reaction (Grams Limiting > Moles Limiting > Bridge > Moles Excess > Grams used of Excess) 3. This is how much of the excess reagent was necessary for the reaction. 4. Subtract this value from the original value of the excess reagent to determine remaining excess reagent.
What are the steps to Gravimetric Analysis? (10)
1. Dissolve unknown substance in water 2. React unknown with known substance to form a precipitate 3. Filter and dry precipitate 4. Weigh precipitate 5. Use mass of precipitate 6. Use molecular mass of precipitate 7. Use (Molecular Mass of Desired Element / Molecular Mass of Precipitate) to find % Comp in that Precipitate 8. Use % Comp times the mass of precipitate to find the mass of the desired element in that precipitate 9. This will also be its mass in the original compound 10. Find (Mass of Desired Element / Mass of Initial Compound) for % Comp of Desired Element in Initial Compound
What are the steps of changing from amount of reactants to amount of product?
1. Find mass (g) of Compound A 2. Use molar mass to find moles of Compound A 3. Mole bridge using coefficients (NOT subscripts) 4. Moles of Compound B 5. Use molar mass to find mass (g) of Compound B
How do you transfer from molecular mass and empirical formula to molecular formula?
1. Find mass of Empirical Formula 2. Find molecular mass 3. Find out how many times the molecular mass is of the mass of Empirical Formula 4. Multiply subscripts by this value
What are the rules for oxidation numbers? (8)
1. Free elements in an uncombined state have an oxidation number of 0. 2. In monatomic ions (one element), the oxidation number is equal to the charge of the ion. Example: Li+ = 1, Fe 3+ = 3 3. Oxidation number for oxygen is -2, except in H2O2 and O2^-2 (-2 charge) when it is -1. 4. Hydrogen is +1 except when bonded to metals in binary compounds, in which case it is -1. 5. Group 1A metals are +1, group 2A metals are +2 6. Fluorine is always -1 7. Oxidation numbers do not have to be integers, they may be fractions. 8. Ignore the coefficient in front of compounds when calculating oxidation numbers.
What are the two exceptions in the ionization energy trends?
1. From Group 15 to 16, IE slightly decreases. This is because Group 15 has 3 unpaired electrons in its "p" subshell, and Group 16 has to pair with one of these electrons. Electrons are more reluctant to sit in the same orbital as other electrons, and therefore it is easy to remove an electron that is sitting in the same orbital as another. Group 15 has no electrons sharing orbitals, but Group 16 has two electrons sharing one orbital. Therefore, it is slightly easier to remove the easiest electron from Group 16 than Group 15, despite all of the other factors. Additionally, the half-filled valence shell of 15 is MORE STABLE than the more than half-filled but not fully filled valence shell of 16. 2. From Group 2 to 13 (2A to 3A), IE slightly decreases. This is because a new "p" sub-shell is added with one electron inside for Group 13, so it is a bit farther out and all alone (*and better shielded from positive pull by more inner-shell electrons*), making it a bit easier to remove. Therefore, it is harder to remove than the closer electrons in the "s" sub-shells of Group 2.
How do you carry out calorimetry to find the enthalpy of a reaction?
1. Mix substances in an insulated container 2. Record change in temperature 3. Use values for specific heat and mass of substances 4. Find q for the surroundings, then make it negative for q for reaction 5. Convert this value to kJ 6. Divide this by moles of the reaction used (*this step important*) to find the enthalpy of the reaction
What are the exceptions to the electron affinity trends? (3) *These are different from ionization energy*
1. Noble Gases - Although they are at the end of the row, they have a full outer ring, and therefore have no electron affinity. 2. Group 2A - Less electron affinity than Group 1A. In Group 1A, the "s" subshell has an extra spot, so it is easy to add an electron. In Group 2A, however, the "s" subshell is full, so to add an extra electron, a new "p" subshell must be created, and it is farther and more shielded than the "s" subshell. Therefore, Group 2A has less electron affinity (very low) than Group 1A. 3. Group 5A - Less electron affinity than Group 4A. In Group 4A, there are two unpaired electrons in the "s" subshell, so it is easy to add one more to the third orbital. However, in Group 5A, there are three unpaired electrons in the "s" subshell. To add a new electron, it would have to be added to the same subshell as another, and due to electron-electron repulsion this can be difficult. 5A is also more stable with a full half-sub shell compared to 4A that does not have half a sub shell filled. Therefore, Group 5A has a lower electron affinity than 4A.
What are the steps to writing a net ionic equation?
1. Write the balanced molecular equation. 2. Write the ionic equation showing strong electrolytes completely disassociated into anions and cations, and insoluble things still together. 3. Cancel the spectator ions on each side. 4. Check that the charges and number of atoms are balanced in the net ionic equation. 5. Write the states of the substances the entire time.
What are the charges of ions in columns 1, 2, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, and 18? How is this determined?
1: +1 Charge (lose 1 electron) 2: +2 Charge (lose 2 electrons) 13: +3 Charge (lose 3 electrons) 14: +/- 4 Charge (gain or lose 4 electrons) 15: -3 Charge (gain 3 electrons) 16: -2 Charge (gain 2 electrons) 17: -1 Charge (gain 1 electron) 18: 0 Charge (gain or lose no electrons) This is determined from the number of valence electrons that each column has, and how to gain a full outer ring from that number.
How many metres is a nanometre?
1nm = 10^-9m
What do "p" orbitals look like?
3 different arrangements (*Because 3 orbitals*) of two infinity-sign spheres each. The "x" orbital is first, and that has two spheres along the x-axis. The "y" orbital is second, and that has two spheres along the y-axis. The "z" orbital is last, and that has two spheres along the z-axis (vertical). *Check binder for visualization*.
What is the range of wavelengths of visible light? What is directly lower than visible, and what is directly higher?
400nm - 700nm is visible. Ultraviolet is lower than visible. Infrared is higher than visible.
How many orbitals does the d sub-shell have?
5 orbitals, so 5 arrangements of spheres.
What is a combination redox reaction?
A + B > C One of the elements in the start is oxidized, the other is reduced.
What is a single displacement redox reaction? What are the three main types, and how do you determine which one it is?
A + BC > AC + B There are hydrogen displacement, metal displacement, and halogen displacement reactions. Hydrogen displacement shows a hydrogen being separated, metal displacement shows a metal being separated, and halogen displacement shows a halogen being separated.
What is a combustion redox reaction?
A + O2 > AO2 They are combined together, and oxidation numbers change.
What is an intensive property?
A property of a material that does not depend upon how much matter is being considered, such as density, temperature, or colour.
What is an extensive property?
A property of matter than depends on how much matter is being considered, such as mass, length, or volume.
What is the difference between accuracy and precision?
Accuracy is how close the measurement is to the true value, whereas precision is how close a set of measurements are to each other.
What is percent yield, or reaction yield?
Actual yield divided by theoretical yield, multiplied by 100 to find the percentage for "how well" the reaction went.
Why is the second ionization energy greater than first ionization energy, even if the electrons are in the same ring?
After removing the first electron, there are *less repulsion forces* between the electrons of that ring, meaning that they push each other out less. That means that it is more difficult to remove the next electron.
What are elements along the staircase usually called? What are elements below the staircase? What are elements above? What are the three exceptions?
Along the staircase: Metalloids. Below the staircase: Metals. Above the staircase: Non-metals Exceptions: Al and Po are along the staircase, but both are metals. At is along the staircase, but is a non-metal.
What is important to remember about ΔE when going down energy levels?
Although the equation may not come out this way, it is *always negative*.
How is gas stoichiometry carried out?
Amount of Reactant (Grams or Volume) > Moles of Reactant > Moles of Product > Amount of Product (Grams or Volume)
What is a diamagnetic atom?
An atom that has all paired electrons.
What is a paramagnetic atom?
An atom that has unpaired electrons.
What is an electrolyte? What is a non-electrolyte?
An electrolyte is a substance that, when dissolved in water, forms ions and creates a solution that can conduct electricity. A non-electrolyte is a substance that, when dissolved in water, does not form ions and creates a solution that does not conduct electricity.
When calculating core charge, what are considered "valence electrons"?
Any electrons in the main valence shell. For example, if there is 2s2 and 2p6, there are EIGHT valence electrons, not only six. Ignore sub shells and only deal with main shells for core charge.
What is the endothermic process? What sign is the energy change? Are bonds formed or broken? Where would energy be shown in the reaction?
Any process that heat is supplied to the system from the surroundings. Positive energy sign, energy is gained. Bonds are broken. Energy would be shown on the left side.
What is the exothermic process? What sign is the energy change? Are bonds formed or broken? Where would energy be shown in the reaction?
Any process that transfers thermal energy from the system to the surroundings. Negative energy sign, energy is lost. Bonds are formed. Energy would be shown on the right side.
What are the trends for ionization energy?
As you move along a row, ionization energy increases, as the atom is becoming smaller. As you move down a column, ionization energy decreases, as the atom is becoming larger.
How do you find percent abundances of two different isotopes when you are given the mass of each isotope and average atomic mass of the element? What if you aren't given AAM?
Assign x-variable to be the decimal percentage abundance of one of the isotopes. Assign (1-x) to be the decimal percentage abundance of the other isotope. Multiply x by its isotope and (1-x) by its isotope, with the AAM of the element on the other side of the equation. Solve for x. If you aren't given AAM, you can determine it from the Periodic Table.
Why are states vital in thermochemical reactions?
Because the ΔH is different depending on the state of the reactant or product.
What must you always do to equations?
Balance them.
Be careful to consider sig figs and basic rounding.
Be careful to consider sig figs and basic rounding.
Be very careful of the wording of questions. 26 J of heat is given off in a reaction means q = -26 J, not q = 26 J. Additionally, it may ask "how much heat is released when ______ happens." If you get a q or H as a value of -2100 kJ, for example, then 2100 kJ are GIVEN OFF.
Be very careful of the wording of questions. 26 J of heat is given off in a reaction means q = -26 J, not q = 26 J. Additionally, it may ask "how much heat is released when ______ happens." If you get a q or H as a value of -2100 kJ, for example, then 2100 kJ are GIVEN OFF.
What noble gas is orange (liquid)?
Bromine.
What is a decomposition redox reaction?
C > A + B One of the elements in the first compound is reduced, another is oxidized. There may be extras that remain static.
How would you determine if Fe (s) + HCl (aq) reacts?
Check if H+ will react with Fe, and if Cl- will react with Fe on the reactions table. Don't try to find HCl on the reactions table.
Are cations negative or positive? Are anions negative or positive?
Cations are positive. Anions are negative.
What noble gas is light green?
Chlorine.
What must you always do to temperature, and to pressure, for this unit? (2)
Convert temperature to degrees Kelvin. Convert pressure to ATM.
What is the direction for down spin?
Counter-clockwise.
What are the exceptions to electron configurations? What is different about them? What happens to the number of unpaired electrons.
Cr Mo Cu Ag Au - In each of them, there is one less electron in the last "s" subshell (so there is only one) and one more in the last "d" subshell [which creates 5 unpaired electrons in the "d" subshell in some of these, and 0 in others]. *In d, the number of unpaired electrons increases from 4 to 5 for some of these exceptions, and in the final "s", there is now one more unpaired electron, so there are 2 more unpaired electrons with these exceptions.*
What is the equation for the energy that an electron has when in a particular ring? What is the equation for the *change* in energy that an electron experiences as it goes from one ring to another?
E = -Rh(1/n^2) E is energy, Rh is Rydberg Constant, n is Principal Quantum Number (ring number) ΔE = Rh · [ (1 / n^2i) - (1 / n^2f) ] Note: When dropping, initial is the higher value, and when going up, initial is the smaller value. *Be careful to remember to square the values.*
What is the equation for energy is this unit? What is another way to arrange it?
E = h · v or E = h · (c/⅄)
Are H3O+ and OH- conjugate pairs? Why or why not?
No, because they are separates by more than one hydrogen proton.
What does each "line" in a p sub-shell show?
Each shows an orbital.
What is thermal energy?
Energy associated with the random motion of atoms and molecules.
What is the first law of thermodynamics? What does this mean about the change in energy of system compared to change in energy of surroundings?
Energy can be converted from one form to another, but cannot be created or destroyed. Added together, this must equal zero.
What is chemical energy?
Energy stored within the collection of neutrons and protons in the atom.
What is radiant energy?
Energy that comes from the sun, earth's primary energy source.
How do you find the partial pressure of a certain gas in a container with a set total pressure?
Find the (number of moles of certain gas / total number of moles of mixed gas) x (total pressure) to find the partial pressure. The fraction of moles of one gas compared to total moles is equal to the percentage of the total pressure that that gas makes up.
What is a simple way of finding the number of unpaired electrons in an atom? What is important to remember?
Find the location on the periodic table, and find out how many electrons are in its valence sub-shell. Then, you can find the number of unpaired. Remember Exceptions: Cr Mo Cu Ag Au. They will have 5 unpaired in "(n-1)d", plus 1 in "ns", for 6 in total.
What is the equation form for first ionization energy? Second ionization energy?
First: M > M+ + e- Second: M+ > M2+ + e-
What happens to ΔH if you flip a thermochemical equation? Multiply or divide it?
Flip: Flip the Symbol (Neg. becomes Pos., Pos. to Neg.) Multiply or Divide: Multiply or divide the large numbers in front of each component, and multiply or divide ΔH by that value.
What is important to remember when drawing diagrams of solutions?
For NaOH, there should be an equal number of Na+ and OH- ions in the solution, once dissolved. However, for Mg(OH)2 (2 subscript), there should be 2 OH- ions for every Mg+ ion in the solution. This is important for drawing and reading diagrams.
How will heat always transfer, regardless of any other factors?
From hot to cold.
What is the different between Group 1A and 2A in row 3, and Group 4A - 7A?
Group 1A and 2A are basic. Group 4A - 7A are acidic.
Does HCl split up into H2 + Cl or H+ + Cl-?
H+ + Cl-.
What is the distinctive sign of an acid-base reaction?
H+ is transferred.
What are the seven diatomic elements?
H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2, I2.
What is the name of Group 7A Elements? What kind of ion to they make? What is important to remember about them by themselves? What is the trend for reactivity? What do they easily react with? Is their Electron Affinity high or low?
Halogens, make -1 anions, they are diatomic, they are less reactive as you move down a column as they are *less likely to gain an electron, and their way of reacting is gaining electrons*, they easily react with hydrogen, high electron affinity.
What is heat? Can something have heat?
Heat is the amount of energy transferred in thermal form. Objects cannot have heat, objects can have a temperature.
What happens in terms of light when an electron moves from a higher "n" value to a lower "n" value? When it moves from lower to higher?
Higher to lower: Energy is lost, so light is *emitted*. Lower to higher: Energy is used, so light is *absorbed*.
What is electron configuration?
How electrons are distributed among the various atomic orbitals in an atom.
What is the equation for Ionization Energy in terms of Photon Energy?
IE = Photon Energy - Kinetic Energy (The energy of the photon knocking off the electron, minus the kinetic energy of that electron as it flies off).
How do you determine the pressure of a gas in an open-tube manometer? (2 Situations)
If right side is HIGHER than left side: Pgas = Ph (height, in mmHg, between the level of liquid in left tube compared to level of liquid in right tube) + Patm (atmospheric pressure from the outside) If right side is LOWER than left side: Pgas = -Ph (height, in mmHg, between the level of liquid in left tube compared to level of liquid in right tube) + Patm (atmospheric pressure from the outside) Essentially, when the right side is LOWER than the left side, the "h" value is negative, and when the right side is HIGHER than the left side, the "h" value is positive.
What noble gas is purple (solid)?
Iodine.
What must you remember to write on the right side of acid-base reaction equations?
Ion charges!
What is the primary difference between ionization energy and electron affinity?
Ionization Energy is the formation of positive ions, while Electron Affinity is the formation of negative ions.
How does atomic radius change as you move along a row? Why?
It becomes smaller, as the higher core charge and extra electron on the outside make the outer ring be pulled closer.
How does a weak electrolyte act in terms of solubility?
It has low solubility.
How does atomic radius change as you move down a column? Why?
It increases, as you are adding more shells to the atoms as they go down a column, meaning they are larger.
What kind of substance is C3H8O? How many C, H, and O atoms are there inside it?
It is a MOLECULE. There are 3 carbon ATOMS, 8 hydrogen ATOMS, and 1 oxygen ATOM inside it.
How is the Speed of a wave calculated? What is the symbol? What are the units?
It is calculated as ⅄ · v. The symbol is u. Units m/s.
What is the colloquial explanation of electron affinity?
It is how much an element wants to take in an electron to achieve a more stable form. The higher the EA, the more the electron wants the electron.
How does the size of a anion compare to its neutral atom?
It is larger, as an electron is added with the same core charge, so there is *more repulsion* between the valence electrons (pushing each other out more).
How does the size of a cation compare to its neutral atom?
It is smaller, as an electron is removed with the same core charge, so there is *less repulsion* between the valence electrons (pushing each other out less).
How does a strong electrolyte act in terms of solubility?
It is soluble.
What is the specific heat of a substance? What are the units?
It is the amount of heat, in joules, required to raise the temperature of one gram of the substance by one degree Celsius. J / g ·°C
What is the ΔH value? How is it shown on a graph, and how is it measured? What is another formula for it?
It is the change in potential energy from reactants to products. It is *PE Products - PE Reactants*. Or, it is *H (Products) - H (Reactants)*
What is activation energy? How is it abbreviated? How is it measured?
It is the difference in potential energy between the Reactants and the Activated Complex. It is abbreviated as EA, and is measured as the distance between those two points.
What is Wavelength? What is the symbol? What are the units?
It is the distance between identical points on successive waves, ⅄. Metres will come out of the equation, but you must report units as nanometres.
What is the standard enthalpy of reaction? What is the symbol?
It is the enthalpy of a reaction carried out at 1 ATM. Symbol is Δ°Hrxn
What is the standard enthalpy of formation? What is the symbol?
It is the heat change that results when one mole of a compounds is formed from its elements *at a pressure of 1 ATM and 25 Degrees Celsius*. Symbol is Δ°Hf
What describes the existence and energy of an electron in an atom?
It's *unique* wave function, Ψ.
What are the units for work? What must it be converted from? What is the conversion factor?
Joules. Must be converted from L x ATM. 1 L x ATM = 101.3 Joules.
What is the acronym for oxidation and reduction?
LEO GER Lose electrons, oxidation. Gain electrons, reduction.
What does a large atomic radius mean about ionization energy? Small?
Large atomic radius = Small ionization energy Small atomic radius = Large ionization energy
Which wavelengths have higher energy; higher wavelengths or lower wavelengths?
Lower (smaller) wavelengths.
Do metals form cations or anions? Why?
Metals for cations, as they lose electrons in bonding.
How do you order the empirical formulas?
Metals are first, then non-metals. Ordering within metals and within non-metals doesn't matter.
How is the molarity of a solution found?
Moles of solute / Litres of solution
When given the mass and abundance of multiple isotopes, how do you calculate the average atomic mass?
Multiply each mass by the decimal version of it's percentage abundance, then add these values.
What are two unusual amphiprotic substances?
NH3 and H2O.
How do the system and surroundings relate when the work is negative? When work is positive?
Negative work: System influences surroundings. Positive work: Surroundings influence system.
What is the Pauli Exclusion Principle?
No two electrons in an atom can have the same four quantum numbers, meaning that they can not be in exactly the same position.
If an atom has a negative Electron Affinity, will it take in an electron? Why or why not?
No, as it is not the favoured process, so it will not occur (EA is normally positive).
Is the ideal gas law always accurate?
No, as it only works for gases that are in their ideal state.
Do Noble Gases react?
No.
Do you consider sig figs for molecular masses (when using them in equations)?
No.
Can electronegativity be measured in an absolute way?
No; it is simply relative values.
Which group has the highest ionization energies?
Noble gases.
What is the trend between metals and non-metals for electron affinity?
Non-metals tend to gain electrons to have a full outer shell, so they have *high affinity*. Metals tend to lose electrons to have a full outer shell, so they have *low affinity*.
What does polar mean?
One end of the molecule is positive, and the other is negative.
What exchanges between an open system and surroundings? Closed? Isolated?
Open system - Mass and Energy Closed system - Energy Isolated system - Nothing
What is the gas formula relating density and molar mass, similar to PV = nRT? *This must be memorized*
PM = dRT P is pressure, M is molarity, d is density, R is constant, and T is temperature.
What is the Ideal Gas Equation? What is the "r" value? How is this slightly altered to deal with changes in a gas?
PV = nRT R is a constant. (P1V1 / P2V2) = (n1RT1 / n2RT2)
What is the main difference between chemical and physical change?
Physical change can be reversed, chemical cannot.
How do you lay out electrons in orbitals within a sub-shell?
Place "spin up" electrons in each free orbital first, and then go through and pair them with "spin down" electrons as necessary, until you reach the number of electrons you need.
When would Delta E be positive? (2) Negative? (2)
Positive: - Gaining energy (positive heat) (endothermic) - Work being done on it from surroundings Negative: - Loosing energy (negative heat) (exothermic) - Work being done to surroundings from it
What are state functions? What are some examples?
Properties that are determined by the state of the system, regardless of how that condition was achieved. For example, energy, pressure, volume, and temperature.
On what side of the reaction are reactants? What side are products?
Reactants are on left side, products on right side.
What does the graph of an exothermic reaction look like (in terms of Rxn Coordinate and Potential Energy)? Endothermic?
Reactants in middle, the goes up to activated complex, then down to a point *lower* than reactants. Reactants in middle, then goes up to activated complex, then down to a point *higher* than reactants.
What are the rules for separating compounds in ionic equations on the right side?
Separate everything except for solids and molecular compounds (like H2O, CO2).
How many orbitals are in the s, p, d, and f shells? How many electrons does each orbital hold?
S has 1, p has 3, d has 5, and f has 7. Each orbital holds 2 electrons.
Why do atoms gain or lose electrons?
So that they form a cation or anion with a noble-gas outer electron configuration.
What is a solute? What is a solvent?
Solute is the substance present in the smaller amount. Solvent is the substance present in the larger amount.
What is the oxidizing agent?
Something that oxidizes something else. The oxidizing agent itself gets reduced.
What is a reducing agent?
Something that reduces something else. The reducing agent itself gets oxidized.
What is the net ionic equation for any strong acid + strong base?
Strong Acid + Strong Base > H2O.
What is a neutralization reaction?
Strong acid and strong base react to make salt and water.
Is a strong acid or a weak acid a strong electrolyte?
Strong acid, as it fully disassociates.
What is actual yield?
The amount of product actually obtained from a reaction.
What group of things tend to be strong electrolytes? What group of things tend to be weak electrolytes?
Strong: Ionic compounds, strong acids, strong bases (metal hydroxides). Weak: Weak acids and weak bases.
What is the Hund Principle?
Subshells must be half-filled before full. This means that you must add a spin-up electron to each orbital in a subshell FIRST, then you may start adding spin-down electrons. Similar to the way that Lewis Dot diagrams work.
What is the indicator?
Substance that changes colour at (or near) the equivalence point.
What are amphiprotic substances? How can you determine a substance to be amphiprotic?
Substances that act as both an acid and a base. They are amphiprotic if they have an easily removable proton and negative charge. You can pretty much assume the proton is easily removable if they are not an organic substance.
How do you calculate the standard enthalpy of reaction for a reaction?
Sum of Moles x Δ°Hf (*Products*) - Sum of Moles x Δ°Hf (*Reactants*) [(Mol C x Δ°Hf C) + (Mol D x Δ°Hf D)] *-* [(Mol A x Δ°Hf A) + (Mol B x Δ°Hf B)]
What is the symbol for the speed of light? What is the number? How is this constant shown in an equation?
Symbol is "c". The number is 3.00 x 10^8 m/s. *⅄ · v = c* is an important equation for visible light.
What does the Schrodinger Wave Equation describe? (2) What is the symbol?
Symbol is Ψ. - Describes energy of electron with a given Ψ - Describes probability of finding electron in a volume of space
What is theoretical yield?
The amount of product thtat would result if all the limiting reagent reacted.
What are the conditions of Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP)?
Temperature: 0 Celsius, or 273 Kelvin Pressure: 1 ATM
What do the double reaction arrows indicate?
That the reaction can go in either direction, and that the reactants do not fully disassociate.
What is the Aufbau Principle?
The "Fill Up" rule, meaning that as electrons are added, they fill up *lower energy levels* first, then continue outwards.
Even though the 3d subshell is filled after the 4s subshell when completing electron configuration, what shell would an electron be removed from first? *This is very important for analyzing ions. You must remember that the electrons are removed from "s" BEFORE "d". Do practice problems 8.28 and 8.30 before test.*
The 4s subshell, as that is still the subshell that is farthest out. After the 4s subshell is empty, THEN it will take from the 3d subshell. This applies for other, higher numbers. This 4s subshell would also be shown after the 3d in a photoelectron spectrum. *Important order distinction*. *This is very important for analyzing ions. You must remember that the electrons are removed from "s" BEFORE "d". Do practice problems 8.28 and 8.30 before test.*
What is Rh, and what is the value?
The Rydberg Constant, used for calculating energy at different energy levels, value 2.18 x 10^-18 J.
What is the mole measurement based off?
The amount of atoms in 12.00 grams of carbon.
What is heat capacity?
The amount of heat, in joules, required to raise the temperature of a given mass of a substance by one degree celsius.
What is energy defined as?
The capacity to do work.
If there is a solution of Mg(OH)2 (2 subscript) with a molarity of 0.3M, what is the molarity of Mg+ and OH-? What does this tell you about molarity and these kinds of compounds?
The concentration of Mg+ would be 0.3M. The concentration of OH- would be 0.6M. The molarity of the solution will be the molarity of the thing with the coefficient "1", and for the other components, the molarity should be multiplied by their coefficient.
What end of the H2O molecules is positive? Which end is negative?
The end with the two H's is positive, and the end with the one O is negative.
What is potential energy?
The energy available by virtue of an object's position.
What is the E = h · v equation used to calculate?
The energy of a photon in a beam of light.
What is ionization energy?
The energy required to remove an electron from an atom.
What is first ionization energy?
The energy required to remove the easiest electron from an atom, in other words the farthest outwards.
How do you determine if something will react with one thing or another first?
The farther apart the two things are on the activity series table, the more likely they are to react. If one thing on the right side is going to react, it will react with the other thing the highest on the left side, in other words the farthest apart.
What are representative elements?
The first 18 elements in the periodic table.
What is the Schrodinger Wave Equation a function of?
The four quantum numbers.
What is Enthalpy? What condition must be true? What is its symbol?
The heat flow into or out of a system in a process that occurs *at constant pressure*. Symbol is H.
What does a higher electron affinity mean about stability?
The higher the electron affinity, the more reactive the atom. The lower electron affinity, the more stable.
How does the average kinetic energy of the molecules in a gas relate to the temperature of that gas, in kelvin?
The higher the temperature, the higher the average kinetic energy.
What is the net ionic equation if all products are soluble?
The ionic equation, showing everything split up.
How can the speeds of particles in a gas differ if the average kinetic energy is the same?
The lighter the particles, or the smaller the molecular mass, the higher the speed.
What is the definition of electron affinity?
The negative of the energy change that occurs when an electron is accepted by an atom in the gaseous state to form an anion.
What reactions occur with Group 5A Elements?
The non-metal oxides react in water to make strong acids (some of the elements in this group are metals, some are non-metals, due to the staircase).
What are principle quantum numbers? (Important)
The number of the ring that an electron is in (n).
What is equal to the core charge?
The number of valence electrons.
What is Frequency? What are the units?
The number of waves that pass through a particular point in 1 second, in Hz. 1Hz = 1 Cycle / Second.
How do the speeds of particles compare between two versions of a gas (same element), if one has a higher average kinetic energy?
The one with the higher average kinetic energy has particles with a higher speed.
What does the ml Quantum Number tell you?
The orbital that an electron is in.
What is electron shielding? What concept is closely related to this?
The outer shell electrons are "shielded" from the positive charge of the nucleus by the inner shell electrons. Core charge and effective nuclear charge take this into account.
What is the equivalence point?
The point at which the reaction is complete.
How do H2O molecules arrange themselves in hydration?
The positive end (H's) turns towards ions with a negative charge, and the negative end (O) turns towards ions with a positive charge. They surround the ions.
How do you determine the pressure of a gas in a closed-tube manometer?
The pressure of the "h" (height, in mmHg, between the level of liquid in left tube compared to level of liquid in right tube) is the pressure of the gas.
What is hydration?
The process in which an ion is surrounded by water molecules arranged in a specific manner.
How do you form the mole bridge?
The substance you "want" goes on the top, the substance you "have" goes on the bottom.
What is the molecular mass? What are two synonyms?
The sum of the atomic masses in a molecule. Synonyms: Formula Mass, Molar Mass
What is the system and the surroundings?
The system is the reaction itself taking place, and the surroundings are the things that are around it.
What is electronegativity? Explain.
The tendency of an atom to attract a covalent bonding pair of electrons. Essentially, in a covalent bond, it is whichever atom is pulling on the shared electrons more, and whichever atom wants them more.
What happens in an equation when two things react? Do they get stuck together or pushed apart?
The two things that react split up, and the thing that doesn't gets stuck to one of the things that did.
What is Amplitude?
The vertical distance from the midline of a wave to the peak or trough.
What happens in a neutralization reaction with one weak electrolyte?
The weak electrolyte never gets split up, changing the net ionic.
Are all NO3's soluble or insoluble? Does NO3 usually do anything in reactions?
They are all soluble. It usually does nothing.
In electron affinity, where are the electrons added?
They are always first added to the outermost shell, for example 4s. If 4s were to be full, then they are added to 3d, and then 4p. 4s will be prioritized to be added to before 3d, like with ionization where 4s is removed first then 3d.
What is important to remember about conjugate bases of strong acids, and conjugate acids of strong bases?
They are called conjugate acids and bases, but they are not actually acids and bases as the reaction cannot go the other way.
If the "l" quantum number is 1, what subshell would this be? What are the three quantum numbers for the orbitals (ml)? If the "l" quantum number is 2, what subshell would this be? What are the five quantum numbers for the orbitals (ml)?
This would be the "p" subshell. Since "l" is 1, the orbitals are -1, 0, and +1. This would be the "d" subshell. Since "l" is 2, the orbitals are -2, -1, 0, +1, and +2.
What happens when acids react with carbonates and bicarbonates?
They produce carbon dioxide.
What happens when acids react with metals?
They produce hydrogen gas.
What reactions occur with Group 4A Elements?
They react with acid to produce hydrogen gas.
What is the general purpose of the Quantum Numbers? What are the four Quantum Numbers?
They tell you exactly *where* an electron is in an atom: Which main shell, which sub-shell, which orbital, and spin up or spin down. They are n (main shell), l (sub-shell), ml (orbital), and ms (spin up or down).
What does Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures state?
Total Pressure = P1 + P2 (at *constant* volume and pressure, if volume of pressure change, be sure to take this into account)
What is the distinctive sign of a precipitation reaction?
Two things form to make a solid.
If you have 30mL of 2.0M Mg(OH)2 and 70mL of 1.5M MgCl2, how do you determine the total concentration of EACH ion when the solutions are mixed? How do you conduct this process, in general?
Use MiVi = MfVf For OH-, Mi = 4.0M (2.0M x 2), Vi = 30mL, *Vf = 100mL (Volume of BOTH solutions added)*, so find Mf For Cl-, Mi = 3.0M (1.5M x 2), Vi = 70mL, *Vf = 100mL*, so find Mf Mg+ is more complicated, with two scenarios: 1. Mi = 2.0M when Vi = 30mL and Vf = 100mL, find Mf 2. Mi = 1.5M when Vi = 70mL and Vf = 100mL, find Mf ADD these values together to find the final total molarity. *In General:* - Determine the final volume of the mixed solution by adding all of the volumes of the solutions that are being mixed together - Find total molarity of any ions that appear only in one of the initial solutions (molarity of solution x moles of that ion in that solution), and by using the initial volume of that solution and the final volume of the final mixed solution, find the final molarity of each of those - For ions in more than one initial solution, use the initial volume of that solution and the final volume of the entire solution, along with the molarity of that ion in each solution, to find the molarity value (in the final solution) that that ion has as a result of each initial solution - Then, add each of these molarities together to have the final molarity of this ion in the final solution
What is the proportionality for Avogadro's Law?
V ∝ Number of Moles (n)
What is the proportionality for Charles and Gay-Lussac's Law?
V ∝ T - As T increases, V increases
When writing ionic and net ionic equations, what components do you split up and which do you leave alone?
You only split up aqueous and soluble components (which will say aq behind them).
How is something diluted, or given a lower molarity value?
Water is added.
What must you remember when collecting the pressure of a gas over water?
Water vapour contributes a certain amount of partial pressure.
What leads to 100% disassociation, and what leads to less than 100% disassociation?
Weak bonds are easy to break apart, so 100% disassociate. Strong bonds are hard to break apart, so don't 100% disassociate.
What is average atomic mass?
Weighted average mass of all the naturally occurring isotopes of an element.
What is Hess's Law?
When reactants are converted to products, the change in enthalpy is the same whether the reaction takes place in one step or in a series of steps.
What is the photoelectric effect?
When visible or *ultraviolet* light is shone on a substance, the energy from the photons of light excite electrons in the substance. If the energy exceeds the ionization energy of an atom in the substance, the electron is emitted.
When will a reaction occur when looking at the activity series table?
When your left finger is above your right finger, the reaction will occur. Basically, one has to be strong oxidizing and one has to be stronger reducing, so left must be higher than right.
What is always the first step to figuring out a titration?
Writing out the chemical formula.
Do you separate strong acids and bases in ionic equations on the left side? Weak acids and bases?
Yes. No.
Is enthalpy a state function? What does this mean?
Yes. It doesn't matter how you get there, only where you start and end.
How do you convert from degrees Celsius into degrees Kelvin?
You add 273.15 degrees to degrees Celsius.
What are the steps to solving a Hess's Law problem?
You are given one 'final' reaction to obtain, and must obtain this reaction from the others that you have. 1. Find what reactants or products need to change sides, and flip these reactions accordingly. 2. Find what needs to be eliminated, and flip and multiply accordingly. 3. Multiply remaining reactions to get the right number and to cancel out. 4. Apply these changes to the change in enthalpy for each reaction, making negative and multiplying/dividing as needed. 5. These added up should equal the change in enthalpy for the overall reaction.
If you are given a volume and molarity that you want to produce using a certain element, how do you conduct the calculation?
You use stoichiometry to go from volume to moles, then from moles to molar mass of the element, and then that is how much mass of the element you would need. Stoichiometry is used in this way at several different places through this unit.
What is the standard units for density for this chapter?
g/L
What does "u" mass unit stand for?
g/mol
What is Planck's constant? What is its symbol?
h = 6.63 x 10^-34 J·s
What is the formula for amount of heat given off? What does each variable mean?
q = mcΔt *Note that for chemistry, mass in in g, and for physics, mass is in kg*
What is the "l" value for the s, p, d, and f orbitals? What is the "n" value for the 1, 2, 3, and 4 shells? These are quantum numbers.
s: 0; p: 1; d: 2; f: 3. 1: 1; 2: 2; 3: 3; 4: 4.
What is the formula for work? What does each variable mean? How is change in volume calculated? Is work a state function?
w = -PΔV (w = work, -P = Pressure x -1, ΔV = Vf - Vi) [ΔV can be negative] Work is not a state function.
What is ΔE, q, and w explained?
ΔE = Change in *internal* energy of a system q = Heat exchange between system and surroundings w = Work done on, or by, the system
What are the differences between ΔE, q, w, and ΔH?
ΔE = q + w, "total" change in energy for something, in units of Joules. q = mcΔt, change in energy for something due to heat gained or heat lost, in units of Joules. w = -PΔV, change in energy for something due to becoming a smaller or larger volume against constant external pressure, in units of Joules. ΔH = ΔHf is the amount of energy to form a compound from its elements, ΔHrxn is the amount of energy for a reaction to take place. In units of kJ/mol. To find heat, multiply kJ/mol by number of moles. Can be used as "q" if then converted to Joules.
What is ΔE? What is the formula?
ΔE is the change in internal energy of a *system* (not surroundings). ΔE = q + w [Remember, w = -PΔV]
What happens when a reaction is flipped in terms of ΔH? What does that mean if an exothermic reaction is flipped?
ΔH becomes the opposite, so an exothermic reaction becomes an endothermic reaction.
