Child Development 3
attachment
an emotional bond with a specific person that is enduring across space and time. Usually, attachments are discussed in regard to the relation between infants and specific caregivers, although they can also occur in adulthood
collaboration
coordination of assertion and affiliation in behavior, which is associated with gender-role flexibility and more common among girls than boys
puberty
developmental period marked by the ability to reproduce and other dramatic bodily changes
negative identity
identity that stands in opposition to what is valued by people around the adolescent
ethnic identity
individuals' sense of belonging to an ethnic or racial group, including the degree to which they associate their thinking, perceptions, feelings, and behavior with membership in that group
gender-essentialist statements
remarks about males' and females' activities and characteristics phrased in language that implies they are inherent to the group as a whole
victimized (peer status)
with respect to peer relationships, this term refers to children who are targets of their peers' aggression and demeaning behavior
adult attachment models
working models of attachment in adulthood that are believed to be based on adults' perceptions of their own childhood experiences - especially their relationships with their parents - and of the influence of these experiences on them as adults
sexual-minority youth
young people who experience same-sex attractions
identity-diffusion status
a category of identity status in which the individual does not have firm commitments and is not making progress toward them
moratorium status
a category of identity status in which the individual is in the phase of experimentation with regard to occupational and ideological choices and has not yet made a clear commitment to them
foreclosure status
a category of identity status in which the individual is not engaged in any identity experimentation and has established a vocational or ideological identity based on the choices or values of others
identity-achievement status
a category of identity status in which, after a period of exploration, the individual has achieved a coherent and consolidated identity based on personal decisions regarding occupation, ideology, and the like. The individual believes that these decisions were made autonomously and is committed to them
neglected (peer status)
a category of sociometric status that refers to children or adolescents who are infrequently mentioned as either liked or disliked; they simply are not noticed much by peers
rejected (peer status)
a category of sociometric status that refers to children or adolescents who are liked by few peers and disliked by many peers
controversial (peer status)
a category of sociometric status that refers to children or adolescents who are liked by quite a few peers and are disliked by quite a few others
popular (peer status)
a category of sociometric status that refers to children or adolescents who are viewed positively (liked) by many peers and are viewed negatively (disliked) by few peers
aggressive-rejected children
a category of sociometric status that refers to children who are especially prone to physical aggression, disruptive behavior, delinquency, and negative behavior such as hostility and threatening others
withdrawn-rejected children
a category of sociometric status that refers to rejected children who are socially withdrawn, wary, and often timid
self
a conceptual system made up of one's thoughts and attitudes about oneself
personal fable
a form of adolescent egocentrism that involves beliefs in the uniqueness of one's own feelings and thoughts
reciprocated best friendship
a friendship in which two children view each other as best or close friends
relational aggression
a kind of aggression that involves excluding others from the social group and attempting to do harm to other people's relationships; it includes spreading rumors about peers, withholding friendship to inflict harm, and ignoring peers when angry or frustrated or trying to get one's own way
gang
a loosely organized group of adolescents or young adults who identify as a group and often engage in illegal activities
sociometric status
a measurement that reflects the degree to which children are liked or disliked by their peers as a group
secure attachment
a pattern of attachment in which infants or young children have a high-quality, relatively unambivalent relationship with their attachment figure. In the Strange Situation, a securely attached infant, for example, may be upset when the caregiver leaves but may be happy to see the caregiver return, recovering quickly from any distress. When children are securely attached, they can use caregivers as a secure base for exploration
insecure attachment
a pattern of attachment in which infants or young children have a less positive attachment to their caregiver than do securely attached children. Insecurely attached children can be classified as insecure/resistant (ambivalent), insecure/avoidant, or disorganized/disoriented
transgender
a person whose gender identity does not match the person's genetic sex; includes individuals who identify either with the other sex, with both sexes, or with neither sex
sexual orientation
a person's preference in regard to males or females as objects of erotic feelings
Strange Situation
a procedure developed by Mary Ainsworth to assess infants' attachment to their primary caregiver
psychosocial moratorium
a timeout during which the adolescent is not expected to take on adult roles and can instead pursue activities that may lead to self-discovery
insecure/resistant (or ambivalent) attachment
a type of insecure attachment in which infants or young children are clingy and stay close to their caregiver rather than exploring the environment. In the Strange Situation, insecure/resistant infants tend to get very upset when the caregiver leaves them alone in the room. When the caregiver returns, they are not easily comforted and both seek comfort and resist efforts by the caregiver to comfort them
disorganized/disoriented attachment
a type of insecure attachment in which infants or young children have no consistent way of coping with the stress of the Strange Situation. Their behavior is often confused or even contradictory, and they often appear dazed or disoriented
insecure/avoidant attachment
a type of insecure attachment in which infants or young children seem somewhat indifferent toward their caregiver and may even avoid the caregiver. In the Strange Situation, they seem indifferent toward their caregiver before the caregiver leaves the room and indifferent or avoidant when the caregiver returns. If the infant gets upset when left alone, he or she is as easily comforted by a stranger as by a parent
self-socialization
active process during development whereby children's cognitions lead them to perceive the world and to act in accord with their expectations and beliefs
parental sensitivity
an important factor contributing to the security of an infant's attachment. Parental sensitivity can be exhibited in a variety of ways, including responsive caregiving when an infant is distressed or upset and engaging in coordinated play with the infant
identity confusion
an incomplete and sometimes incoherent sense of self that often occurs in Erikson's stage of identity versus identity confusion
body image
an individual's perception of, and feelings about, his or her own body
identity achievement
an integration of various aspects of the self into a coherent whole that is stable over time and across events
friendship
an intimate, reciprocated positive relationship between two people
gender identity
awareness of oneself as a boy or a girl
gender stability
awareness that gender remains the same over time
gender-typed
behaviors associated with a given person's gender
cross-gender-typed
behaviors associated with the gender other than that of a given person
gender segregation
children's tendency to associate with same-gender peers and to avoid other-gender peers
androgens
class of steroid hormones that normally occur at higher levels in males than in females and that affect physical development and functioning from the prenatal period onward
androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS)
condition during prenatal development in which androgen receptors malfunction in genetic males, impeding the formation of male external genitalia; in these cases, the child may be born with female external genitalia
congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH)
condition during prenatal development in which the adrenal glands produce high levels of androgens; sometimes associated with masculinization of external genitalia in gentic females; and sometimes associated with higher rates of masculine-stereotyped play in genetic females
cliques
friendship groups that children voluntarily form or join themselves
crowds
groups of adolescents who have similar stereotyped reputations; among American high school students, typical crowds may include the "brains," "jocks," "loners," "burnouts," "punks," "populars," "elites," "freaks," or "nonconformists"
gender-role intensification
heightened concerns with adhering to traditional gender roles that may occur during adolescence
interest filter
initial evaluation of information as being personally interesting
gender schema filter
initial evaluation of information as relevant for one's own gender
tuition
learning through direct teaching
observational learning
learning through watching other people and the consequences others experience as a result of their actions
enactive experience
learning to take into account the reactions one's past behavior has evoked in others
effect size
magnitude of difference between two group's averages and the amount of overlap in their distributions
self-esteem
one's overall evaluation of the worth of the self and the feelings that this evaluation engenders
spermarche
onset of capacity for ejaculation
menarche
onset of menstruation
gender schemas
organized mental representations (concepts, beliefs, memories) about gender, including gender stereotypes
peers
people of approximately the same age and status
adrenarche
period prior to the emergence of visible signs of puberty during which the adrenal glands mature, providing a major source of sex steroid hormones; correlates with the onset of sexual attraction
activating influences
potential result of certain fluctuations in sex-linked hormone levels affecting the contemporaneous activation of the nervous system and corresponding behavioral responses
organizing influences
potential result of certain sex-linked hormones affecting brain differentiation and organization during prenatal development or at puberty
identity foreclosure
premature commitment to an identity without adequate consideration of other options
ingroup assimilation
process whereby individuals are socialized to conform to the group's norms, demonstrating the characteristics that define the ingroup
gender dysphoria disorder
psychiatric diagnosis included in the DSM-5 to refer to children who identify with the other gender and indicate cross-gender-typed interests
gender constancy
realization that gender is invariant despite superficial changes in a person's appearance or behavior
gender-role flexibility
recognition of gender roles as social conventions and adoption of more flexible attitudes and interests
secure base
refers to the idea that the presence of a trusted caregiver provides an infant or toddler with a sense of security that makes it possible for the child to explore the environment
meta-analysis
statistical technique used to summarize average effect size and statistical significance across several research studies
affiliation
tendency to affirm connection with others through being emotionally open, empathetic, or cooperative
ingroup bias
tendency to evaluate individuals and characteristics of the ingroup as superior to those of the outgroup
assertion
tendency to take action on behalf of the self through competitive, independent, or aggressive behaviors
imaginary audience
the belief, stemming from adolescent egocentrism, that everyone else is focused on the adolescent's appearance and behavior
internal working model of attachment
the child's mental representation of the self, of attachment figure(s), and of relationships in general that is constructed as a result of experiences with caregivers. The working model guides children's interactions with caregivers and other people in infancy and at older ages
opportunity structure
the economic and social resources offered by the macrosystem in the bioecological model, and people's understanding of those resources
social comparison
the process of comparing aspects of one's on psychological, behavioral, or physical functioning to that of others in order to evaluate oneself
gender typing
the process of gender socialization and development
identity versus identity confusion
the psychosocial stage of development, described by Erikson, that occurs during adolescence. During this stage, the adolescent or young adult either develops an identity or experiences an incomplete and sometimes incoherent sense of self
attachment theory
theory based on John Bowlby's work that posits that children are biologically predisposed to develop attachments to caregivers as a means of increasing the chances of their own survival
social-skills training
training programs designed to help rejected children gain peer acceptance; they are based on the assumption that rejected children lack important knowledge and skills that promote positive interaction with peers