Child Development ch. 8 and ch. 9

internalization

during socialization, process by which children accept societal standards of conduct as their own- internalize and make them their own. they believe it to be right and true

receptive cooperation

eager willingness to cooperate harmoniously with a parent in daily interactions including routines chores hygiene and play. enables child a parent to be an active partner in socialization.

smiling and laughing

earliest smiles occur because of subcortical nervous system activity. social smiling does not develop until the 2nd month of life. laughter becomes more common between 4 and 12 months. by 12 to 15 months infants are intentionally communicating to the partner about objects. form of infant smiles as well as their timing changes with development.

empathy

emerges during the second year and increases with age. but the roots of empathy can be seen in early infancy when they react to others emotional expressions.

self evaluative emotions

emotions such as pride, shame, and guilt, that depend on both self awareness and knowledge of socially accepted standards.

the reggio emilia approach

encouaging nonviolent dialogues and debates. education based on relationship

three types of early memory:

**Generic memory - produces scripts of familiar routines to guide behavior **Episodic memory - long-term memory linked to time and place **Autobiographical memory - memory of specific events in one's own life

sleep problems and disorders

1 in 10 parents have a child with sleep problem. tend to run in families. only occasional and are usually outgrown.

developing autonomy

18 to 3 years as the second stage of eriksons psychosocial theory. autonomy vs shame and doubt. marked by a shift from external control to self control. toilet training is an important step. and language. shame and doubt have a necessary place so they can recognize the need for limits.

both boys and girls typically grow _ to _ a year

2 to 3 inches a year durign early childhood and gain 4 to 6 pounds annually.

understanding objects in space

3 can use maps. Relationships between pictures, maps, or scales models after age 3 -Dual representation - difficulty grasping spatial relationships because of the need to keep more than one mental representation in mind

brain development

3 to 6, most rapid growth in the frontal areas that regulate planning and goal setting. 3 yrs old 90% of adult weight. wide individual differences exist.

cognitive levels of play

4 levels of play as showing increaseing cognitive complexity: functional, constructive, dramatic and formal games with rules. but its not a stage theory Functional play (Locomotor play): Begins in infancy. Repetitive muscular movements Constructive play (Object play)Use of materials to make something Dramatic play or pretend play. Involves "make believe" objects, actions, or roles formal games with rules: organized games with known procedures... school aged children.

early childcare

60 % on Americans not yet in kindergarten are in child care. effect may depend on the type, amount, quality and stability of care... quality of care contributes to cognitive and psychological competence.

scaffolding

temporary support

animism

tendency to attribute life to objects that are not alive (attribute life to things that share characteristics with living things- things that move)

transduction

tendency to mentally link particular experiences whether or not there is logically a causal relationship

gender roles

Behaviors, interests, attitudes, skills, and personality traits that a culture considers appropriate for each sex

recall

the ability to reproduce knowledge from memory -describe the mitten to someone.

social interaction model

vygotsky sociocultrial theory that proposes that children construct autobiographical memories through conversation with adults about shared events

drawing

Stages in drawing n Toddlers - Scribble stage n 3 years old n Shape stage n Design stage n 4 and 5 years old n Pictorial stage not universal. adult intervention has a negative influence on chidlrens drawings

terrible twos

are a normal sign of the drive for autonomy. to thst the notions that they are individuals. negativism: the tendency to should no just for the sake of authority. declines by age 6. not universal.

oral health

All primary teeth are present n Thumb sucking, needs to stop by age 4 so it doesnt affect the adult teeth that are developing n Tooth decay - often stems from overconsumption of sweetened milk and juices with lack of regular dental care

adult attachment interview (AAI)

asks adults to recall and interpret feelings and experiences related to to their childhood attachment.the cycle of insecure attachment can be broken..

vocabulary

at three average of 1000 words. by 6 2600. and understands more than 20000 passive or receptive.

cognitive construction

Cognitive construction: a descriptive and evaluative mental picture of one's abilities & traits

compensatory preschool programs

Compensatory Preschool Programs Ê Project Head Start Ê 1965 federally funded program Ê A "whole-child" approach - dental, medical, mental health, social services, and at least one hot meal a day Ê Suffers from inadequate funding Ê Does improve school-readiness, but skills still remain below U.S. average

gender behavioral differences

develop psychically basically the same. between ages 1 and 2 is preferences between toys and play activities. more on page 243

Understanding and Regulating Emotions

Helps guide behavior in social situations and talk about feelings Begins with the family Can talk about their feelings, conflicting emotions Emotional display rules Cultural influences on emotional regulation

delayed language development

Heredity Ê Late talkers- boys more likely than girls to be late talkers Ê May have problems in fast mapping - need to hear a word more than once. Ê Predictors of persistent difficulties usually catch up

gender and play

How Gender Influences Play Boys engage in more physical play Girls prefer more structured, adult-supervised activities sex segregation. universal across cultures.

influence on memory retention

Influences on memory retention Ê Uniqueness of the event Ê Active participation Ê Talking about past events Ê Elaborative style Ê Repetitive style when events are rare or unusual children remember them better. or an emotional impact

cognitive approaches

Kohlberg's Cognitive-Developmental theory - Children use gender categories as guides for their behavior, including self-socialization Gender constancy (sex-category constancy. one will always be male or female) Gender identity Gender stability Gender consistency Cognitive approaches Gender schema theory: children socialize themselves in their gender roles by developing a mentally organized network of information about what it means to be male or female in a particular culture Actively extracting knowledge about gender from their environment before engaging in gender-typed behavior Ideas about gender are organized into schemas

personal agency

Personal agency refers to one's capability to origi- nate and direct actions for given purposes. It is influenced by the belief. in one's effectiveness in performing specific tasks, which is termed self- efficacy, as well as by one's actual skill.

centration

Piaget. tendency of preoperational children to focus on one aspect of a situation and neglect the others. cannot decenter.

decenter

Piaget. to think simultaneously about several aspects of a situation.

psychoanalytical approach

Psychoanalytical Approach Identification: process by which a young child adopts characteristics of the parent of the same sex. Child looks up to and wants to be like samesex parent

gender differneces

Psychological or behavioral differences between males and females Intelligence- no gender differneces. Temperament - gender similarity hypothesis.

self efficacy

Self-efficacy refers to an individual's belief in his or her capacity to execute behaviors necessary to produce specific performance attainments (Bandura, 1977, 1986, 1997). Self-efficacy reflects confidence in the ability to exert control over one's own motivation, behavior, and social environment.

social learning approach

Social cognitive theory: Albert Banduras expansion of social learning theory holds that children learn gender roles through socialization Enable children to learn about gender-typed behaviors before performing them Behavior feedback & direct teaching Family / peer influences Cultural influences

social construction

Social construction: growing understanding of how others see them

influences on measured intelligence

Temperament Ê Social and emotional maturity Ê Ease in the testing situation Ê Preliteracy or literacy skills Ê Socioeconomic status

social dimension of play

The Social Dimension of Play Parten (1932) identifies six types of play Unoccupied, onlooker, solitary independent, parallel, associative, and cooperative play Parallel constructive play Working on something or playing near another child Imaginary play

the nichd study: isolating child care effects

Time spent in substitute care is positively related to problem behavior risks n Female minority employment patterns differ from those of white women n Studies of minority childcare experiences have mixed results; conventional evaluation methods may not apply

socialization

development of habits, skills, values, and motives, shared by responsible productive members of society.

2. representational mappings

a child makes logical connections between aspects of the self but stull sees these characteristics in all or nothing terms

universal preschool

a national system for early care and education that makes access to preschool similar to kindergarten by using the public school

language

a system of symbols.

behavioral inhibition

a trait which has to do with how boldly or cautiously a child approaches unfamiliar objects and situation. if you are high on behavioral inhibition then you freak out... researchers theorized its because they have an unusually excitable amygdala.

social cognition

ability to understand the other people have mental states and to gauge their feelings and intentions

accidental injuries and death

accidents are the leading cause of death after infancy throughout childhood and adolescence in the US. most deaths occur at home. n Automobile accidents nSeat belts, car, and booster seats are required

altruistic behavior

activity intended to help another person with no expectation of reward. seems to come naturally to toddlers.

nutrition

age 2 health dies is the same as for adults. obesity is a problem. low income families. worldwide 22 million under the age of 5 are obese. calorie intake and lack of exercise. dont force them to clear their plates. what children eat is as important as how much.

food allergy

an abnormal immune system response to a specific food. 90% can be attributed to 7 foods. most children will outgrow them. increase in allergy rates.

goodness of fit

appropriateness of environmental demands and constraints to a child's temperament. a match between a child's temperament and their environmental demands they must deal with

sleep or night terror

awaken abruptly early in the night from a deep sleep in a state of agitation. not really awake. remembers nothing. 3 and 13, more boys than girls.

gender identity

awareness developed in early childhood that on is male or female. important aspect of the developing concept.

when do emotions appear?

babies soon after birth show sings of contentment, interest, and distress. During the next 6 months these early emotional states differentiates into true emotions.

montessori method

based on the belief that childrens natural intelligence involves rational, spiritual and empirical aspects. stresses the importance of childrens learning independently at their own pace as they work with developmentally appropriate materials.....

physical play

begins in infanct, as gross motor skills improve - running, skipping

brain growth and emotional development

bidirectional process. emotional experiences are affected by brain development but also can have long lasting effects on the structure of the brain. four major shifts: -differentiation of basic emotions -frontal loves being to interact with the limbic system (9 or 10 months) -infants develop self awareness (2nd year) because of myelination of the frontal lobes -age three, develop emotions like shame,,, I dunno

how is attachment established

by 1 it is established. the results of expectations formed because of repeated interactions with a caregiver. working model.

separation anxiety

distress shown by someone typically an infant when a familiar caregiver leaves stranger and separation anxiety are typical but not universal.. 6 months to a year?

traditional psychometric measures

can include more verbal items. two most common; Traditional Psychometric Measures Ê Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales Ê Measures reasoning, knowledge, visual-spatial processing, and working memory Ê Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scales of Intelligence, Revised (WPPSI-III) Ê Measures verbal and nonverbal reasoning, vocabulary, and processing speed

temperament

characteristic disposition or style of approaching and reacting to situations closely linked to emotional responses to the environment temperament is relatively consistent and enduring, form the core of the developing personality -3 kinds of temperament

deferred imitation

children imitate an action at some point after having observed it (symbolic function) requires the child to have kept a mental representation of an observed action.

slow to warm up children

children whose temperament is generally mild but who are hesitant about accepting new experiences

easy children

children with a generally happy temperament, regular biological rhythms and a readiness to accept new experiences

difficult children

children with irritable temperament, irregular biological rhythms and intense emotional responses

categorizing play

cognitive complexity or by social dimension

chapter 10

cognitive development in early childhood

nightmares

common. usually occur towards morning. often brought on by staying up to late, eating a heavy meal, overexcitement...

executive memory

conscious control of thoughts emotions and actions to accomplish goals or solve problems. the growth of working memory may permit the development of this. enables children to plan and carry out goal directed mental activity...

trust vs mistrust

erikson's first stage of psychosocial development. in which infants develop a sens of the reliability of people and objects. if we are successful we develop a sense of reliability of people and objects in our world. depends heavily on early experience. until about 18 months. want a balance of both.

erikson: initiative vs guilt

eriksons third stage in psychosocial development, in which children balance the urge to pursue goals with moral reservations that my prevent carrying them out . desire to do and the desire for approval. when they balance these opposing drives, they develop the virtue of purpose: the courage to envision and pursue goals without being unduly inhibited by guild or fear of punishment

walking and talking in sleep

fairly common. may be in danger of hurting themselves. best not to interrupt them- frighten them.

transitional objects

favorite toy or blanket. used repeatedly as bedtime companions help a child shift from the dependence of infancy to the independence of later childhood

disorganized disoriented attachment

fourth patter of attachment. in which an infant after separation from the primary caregiver shows contradictory patterns to their return. confused and afraid.

biological approach

genes and crap i dunno

bodily growth and change

grow rapidly between 3 and 6, but less quickly than infancy and toddlerhood. slender, potbelly tightens. boys more muscle and girls more fatty tissue.

grammar and syntax

grows increasingly sophisticated. grammar is the deep underlying structure of a language that allows us to both produce and understand utterances .syntax is rules of putting together sentences. At 3, children typically begin to use plurals, possessives, and past tense Ê They still make errors of overregularization (inappropriate use of grammatical rules) Ê By ages 5 to 7, childrenʼs speech is quite adultlike, but they still have not mastered the fine points of language

toddlers

halfway between their first and second birthdays babies become toddlers - walking talkingm and their personalities

contingent self esteem: the helpless patern

if self esteem is contingent on success children may view failure or criticism as an indictment of their worth and may feel helpless to do better. tend to become demoralized when they fail...

central executive

in baddeleys model element of working memory that controls the processing of info. orders information into long term memory

1. single representations

in neo piagetian terminology, first stage in development of self definition in which children describe themselves in terms of individual, unconnected characteristics and in all or nothing terms

systems of actions

increasingly complex combinations of skills that permit a wiser or more precise range of movement and more control of the environment. as childrens bodies change, permitting them to do more, they integrate their new and previously acquired skills.

numbers

infants as young as 4 and half months can understand basic numbers... by age 4 most children have words for comparing quantities. cardinality: number names. 5 can count to 20 or more...

retrieval

info is accessed or recalled from memory storage

sensory memory

initial, brief, temporary storage of sensory information

intelligence: psychometric and vygotskian approach

intelligence involves the ability to learn from situations, adapt to new experiences and manipulate abstract concepts.

conscience

internal standards of behavior which usually control ones conduct and produce emotional discomfort when violated. goal of parenting.

shared intentionality

joint attention to a mutual goal (kid hands caregiver a pair of socks when they are dressing them) increase during the 2nd year

self esteem

judgment a person makes about his or her self worth, based on childrens growing cognitive ability to describe and define themselves. Not based on reality but rather on adults' judgments

strange situation

laboratory technique used to study infant attachment. a sequence of 8 episodes with gradually increasing stress.

gross motor skills

large muscles

mirror neurons

may underlie empathy and altruism. neurons that fire when a person does something or observes someone else doing the same thing.

3. representational systems

middle childhood, children begin to integrate specific features of the self into a general miltimensional concept

bed wetting

most children say dry by age 3 to 5

crying

most powerful way infants communicate their needs. 4 patterns of crying: -hunger cry -angry cry -pain cry -frustration cry if parents wait until cries of distress escalate into rage, it may become more difficult to sooth the baby

first signs of emotion

newborns plainly show unhappiness. harder to tell when they are happy. these early signs are important indicators of development. when their messages bring a response their sense of connection with the other people grows, along with their sense of control over the world

Play

no obvious purpose. important to development and has important current and long term functions. most important learning occurs during play. contributes to all domain of development.. the trend of full day kindergarten reduces play. Children Need Plenty of Time for Free Exploratory Play. so not enrichment videos.. Cognitive complexity Social dimension pg. 315

situational compliance

obedience of a parents orders only in the presence of signs of ongoing parental control . they needed the extra asistance provided by their parents reminder

structural characteristics

staff training and the ration of children to caregivers

ambivalent (resistant) attachment

pattern in which an infant becomes anxious before the primary caregiver leaves, is extremely upset during his or her absence and both seeks and resists contact on his or her return.

secure attachment

pattern in which an infant is quickly and effectively able to find comfort from a caregiver when faced with a stressful situation. most common (60-70%)

avoidant attachment

pattern in which an infant rarely cries when separated from the primary caregiver and avoids contact on his or her return

CHAPTER 9

physical development and health of early childhood

causality

piaget said that preoperational children cannot yet reason logically about cause and effect. insted they reason by transduction . he was incorrect. they do grasp cause and effect! but they view all causal relationships as equally predictable

conservation

piaget. awareness that two objects are equal according to a certain measure remain equal in the fact of perceptual alteration so long as nothin ghas been added to or taken away from either object. water from one glass is poured into a different shaped glass...

irreversibity

piaget. failure to understand that in operation can go in two or more directions

egocentrism

piaget. inability to consider another persons point of view, three mountain task.

symbolic function

piagets term for ability to use mental representations (words, numbers, or images) to which a child has attached meaning. called on a concept from her memories, doesnt need to be reminded of ice cream to want it. being able to think about something with out sensory or motor cues.

pretend play

play involving imaginary people or situations also called fantasy play... use an object to REPRESENT something else. remote as a phone.. .

pragmatics

practical knowledge needed to use language for communicative purposes "may I please have a cookie"

gender sterotypes

preconceived generalizations about male or female role behavior. peak at age 5. these are purely social constructs.

handedness

preference for using a particular hand. usually evident by age 3. left hemisphere controls the right side is usually dominant so most people are right handed. boys more likely left handed.

encoding

prepared for long term storage

early childhood education

preschool. In some countries, preschools provide academic preparation for schooling Ê Most preschools in the U.S. and many other western countries have followed a "child-centered" philosophy Ê The Montessori Method

emergent literacy

preschoolers development of skills knowledge and attitudes that underlie reading and writing.

fast mapping

process by which a child absorbs the meaning of a new word after hearing it once or twice in a conversation

mutual regulation

process by which infants and caregiver communicate emotional states to each other and respond appropriately. infants send behavioral signals. when babies do not achieve desired results they keen on sending signals to repair the interaction. helps babies learn to read others behaviors and develop expectations...

long term memory

storage of virtually unlimited capacity that holds information for long periods

emotions

subjective reactions to experience that are associated with physiological and behavioral changes a persons characteristic pattern of emotional reactions begins to develop during infancy and is a basic element of personality

private speech

talking aloud to oneself with no intent to comm with others. normal and common. Talking aloud to oneself Ê Self-expressive Ê Relevant to a task Ê External signs of task-directed inner speech

chapter 11

psychosocial development in early childhood

attachment

reciprocal, enduring tie between two people, especially between infant and caregiver- each of whom contributes to the quality of the relationship. adaptive value for the baby. ensures that their meets are met.

how stable is temperament

relatively stable, speaks to the underlying biological influences. largely inborn. develops as various emotions and self regulatory capacities appear- culture.

enuresis

repeated urination in clothing or bed. more common in boys. more than half outgrow by 8. runs in families. alarms that wake the child up, drug therapy,

categorization or classification

requires a child to identify similarities and differences. by age 4 children can classify by 2 criteria. (color and shape)

still face paradigm

research procedure used to measure mutual regulation in infants 2 to 9 months old. the mother suddenly becomes stone faced silent, and unresponsive, and then a few minutes later returns to normal. children become dysregulated.

storage

retention of info in memory for future use

self regulation

s persons independent control of behavior to conform to understood social expectations. foundation of socialization and links to all domains of development. takes at least 3 years to fully develop

long term effects of attachment

seems to affect emotional, social, and cognitive competence. secure attachment makes it easier for them to have good relationships when they are older. they will feel confident enough to actively engage in the world. insecurely attached children toddlers tend to show more fear, distress, and anger

real self

self one actually is

ideal self

self one would like to be. cannot decenter.

self concept

sense of self, descriptive and evaluative mental picture of ones abilities and traits. comes into focus during toddler hood

self concept

sense of self; descriptive and evaluative mental picture of ones abilities and traits. the image of ourselves. more on page 237 `

working memory

short therm storage of information being actively processed

how does maternal emplyment affect children

showed negative effects on cognitive development at 15 months to 3 years. when mothers worked 30 or more hours a week. maternal sensitivity, high quality home environment and high quality child care lessen the effects. the economic and social benefits may outweigh any disadvantages

gender

significance of being male or female

motor development

skills do not develop in isolation. build on past achievements. stronger, can breathe better,

fine motor skills

small muscles and hand eye coordination. gains allow children to take more responsibility for their personal care.

gender typing

socialization process by which children at an early age learn appropriate gender roles. differ by culture.

gender typing

socialization process where by children at an earl age learn appropriate gender roles

social speech

speech intended to be understood by a listener

theory of mind

the awareness and understanding of mental processes. beliefs, intents, desires....... allows us to understand and predict the behavior of others. makes the social world understandable- SOCIAL COGNITION. piaget found that children under 6 cannot distinguish between thoughts and dreams, so no theory of mind. more research indicates ages 2 and 5 grows drastically

self awareness

the cognitive understanding that they have a recognizable identity, separate and different from the rest of the world. seems to emerge between 15 and 24 months. leads to self conscious emotions (embarrassment, empathy)

identities

the concept that people and many things are basically the same even if they change in form, size, or appearance. Ex: wig.

health in context: environmental influences

the lower the SES the greater risk of illness, injury and death. an estimated 1.35 children experience homelessness each year. exposure to smoking air pollution pesticides and lead:

personality

the relatively consistent blend of emotions temperament thought and behavior that makes each person unique. personality development is intertwined with social relationships. this combination is called psychosocial development.

piagetian approach the preoperational stage

the second major stage of cognitive development, but are not yet able to use logic ages 2-7 expansion in the use of symbolic thought (language) accompanied by a growing understanding of causality, identities categorization and numbers...

self definition

the way they describe themselves. typically changes between 5 and 7 reflecting self concept development at 7 he will begin to to be able to descrive himself in terms of generalized triats, recognize that he can have conflicting emotions, and be selfcritical while holding a postitive overall self concept Changes in Self-Definition: The 5 to 7 Shift Self-definition Step 1 - Single representations - isolated, onedimensional items Real self Ideal self Step 2 - Representational mappings - logical connections b/w parts of one's image Step 3 - Representational systems - multidimensional concept Cultural differences in self-definition

recognition

type of retrieval. ability to identify a previously encountered stimuli. preschoolers do better on this one. spot a mitten in a lost and found

undernutrition

underlying cause in more than half of all deaths before age 5. may negatively affect not only growth and physical well being but cognitive and psychosocial development too. long lasting effects. early education can help counter the effects.

social referencing

understanding an ambiguous situation by seeking out another persons perception of it. when babies look at their caregivers upon encountering an ambiguous event. 1 years old.

how do you measure temperament

usually by parental ratings, but it can cause problems because they tend to compare to other kids in the family. observations by researchers can be biased too because they only see the kid in the lab

sleep patterns

usually sleep more deeply at night than they will later in life. average about 11 hours a sleep a night by age 5 and give up day time naps. varies culturally. resistance when being put to bed is normal.

zone of proximal development

vygotsky said children learn by internalizing the result of interactions with adults. so this is the term for the diff between what a child can do alone and what they child can do with help. can be assessed by dynamic test... they emphasize potential. strive to measure learning processes Ê Guided participation - support from others Ê Zone of proximal development (ZPD) Ê Time when children are almost ready to accomplish tasks on their own Ê Scaffolding Ê Impact on education: cooperative learning

stranger anxiety

wariness of strange people and places shown by some infants from 6 to 12 monthss

process characteristics

warmth, sensitivity, responsiveness and the developmental appropriateness of activities

committed compliance

wholehearted obedience of a parents orders without reminders or lapses. more likely to be girls than boys. increases with age.

rough and tumble play

wrestling kicking and chasing

Information processing approach: memory development

young children tend to focus on exact details of an event. may fail to notice important aspects of a situation... so they dont have as good of a memory theory focuses on the processes that affect cognition. filing system with three steps and three types of storage

preparation for literacy

Ê Emergent literacy Ê Prereading skills can be divided into 2 types: 1. Oral language skills: Vocabulary, syntax, narrative structure 2. specific phonological skills: linking letters with sounds Ê Reading to children is One of the most effective paths to early literacy

language development

Ê Vocabulary Ê Fast mapping Ê Child forms an idea of a new wordʼs meaning after hearing it once or twice in conversation Ê Nouns and adjectives Ê Children can reference the same noun with two adjectives at 3 - 4 years