China and India Midterm 1

Mandala

India's first ruling sultan established a classical Indian mandala, or circle of sovereignty, with himself at the center. The sultan also governed in the manner of a classical Indian maharaja, as a sort of over-king reigning over a circle of Indian princes who had been allowed to retain elements of their former sovereignty, and to whom he sent signet rings with his name carved in Sanskrit. In the Sanskritic model a righteous king, like a chess player carefully maneuvering his pieces on the board, followed an elaborate geopolitical strategy aimed at creating around his royal court a circle (mandala) of subordinate rulers. These might be distant kings, Would-be -rivals, or even form.er enemies. As a result, although a king's circle of subordinate rulers might be forged from success in combat, it was maintained by an exchange of honors. The paradox, however, was that in return for gaining public recognition as a supreme overlord; a maharaja had to dispense to his subordinates much of the substance of governance, administering justice, collecting revenue, raising armies for example.

Sanskritic model of kingship

One of the distinct models of polity, elite culture, and society in India. Celebrated the ideology of a universal ruler, personified respectively by the maharaja and the sultan. Each articulated a blueprint for social and moral order by elaborating codes of conduct and a discourse of proper courtly comportment. The Sanskritic model of kingship attained clear definition by the 4th century and persisted unrivaled for nearly 1000 years, furnishing a template for how new states emerged and asserted their claims to legitimate authority throughout South and even Southeast Asia. From around the early second millennium, this model began to be articulated in South Asian vernacular languages displacing Sanskrit's former monopoly on political discourse. In the earlier, Sanskritic model, chiefs who managed to acquire control over strategic forts· would appropriate the title of raja and claim descent from illustrious royal predecessors or mythological figures. They also performed-or were said to have performed-stunning deeds of conquest, including actual or ritualized conquests of neighboring kings (the "conquest of the quarters"): Once in power in their own Courts, these rulers sought to transform former or potential enemies into dependent vassals. They also patronized Brahman priests, built and maintained temples, bestowed royal titles on their vassals, and, in India's dryer regions, supported the construction of irrigation systems for enhancing the productive wealth of their respective domains. Crucially, they ascribed ritual sovereignty over their domains to a form of one of the great Hindu gods (usually Shiva or Vishnu), conceived of as their state's cosmic overlord, whose image was typically placed in an elaborately adorned royal temple located in the heart of the kingdom's capital Viewing himself as a servant of his kingdom's patron deity, a king thus shared with the gods a common pool of symbols respecting power and authority. However, because they were professionally engaged in the shedding of blood-a deeply polluting substance in the Hindu universe----kings were ritually disqualified from interacting directly with the divine world, an activity that consequently fell to Brahman priests attached to royal courts. • Mythological ancestry - destiny to rule, and a need for population to accept ruler, provide legitimacy • Had a raja (leader), which had a mythological ancestor • Governed through priestly class, brahmins, would consecrate the king • Interconnected system • Mughals - Akbar has the brahmins and commercial class in cabinet, recognized that in order to win allegiance of people, he needed to include outside voices in his cabinet

Emperor Kang'xi

The Cohong monopoly replaced the system of "official merchants" which had been established during the reign of the Kangxi emperor (1662-1722) to resolve disputes about trade. Although it had not been established on the orders of the government, it did have informal but powerful support from the imperial bureaucracy, especially local officials, some of whom used it secretly to line their own pockets. The Kangxi Emperor's reign of 61 years makes him the longest-reigning emperor in Chinese history and one of the longest-reigning rulers in the world.

Tribute System

The Manchu inherited the tributary system of foreign relations from previous dynasties. This system assumed that China was culturally and materially superior to all other nations, and it required those who wished to trade and deal with China to come as vassals to the emperor, who was the ruler of "all under heaven." The tributary system was used by the Qing Board of Rites to deal with the countries along China's eastern and southern borders and with the European nations that sought trade at the ports of south and southeast China.

Nomothetic

The social (political) scientist is more likely to emphasize general explanations from particular social phenomena. Focuses on general, universal, how the event can have wider implications/applications. Synergy between IR and history, two sets of scholars in IR and history approach subject matters differently, analysis of singular events in history, analysis of patterns in political science.

Zhapu Phizo (he was an Angami Naga who decided to cooperate with the Japanese and the INA)

This contribution was not necessarily voluntary, and some inhabitants resisted joining the Allied war effort. They deserted military and auxiliary forces when they did not choose to join the Japanese or the INA. One man stands out in particular: Zaphu Phizo, an Angami Naga. In 1942, Phizo was in self-imposed exile in Rangoon, having refused to accept British rule. To achieve independence, he decided to cooperate with the Japanese and joined the INA, fighting alongside them and, eventually, being captured and jailed.50 Phizo would eventually lead the Naga struggle for independence against postcolonial India. Although Phizo's case stands out as an important example of Naga-INA-Japan cooperation, many Nagas misinformed the Japanese, informed the Allies, and continued to join Naga Levies, Armed Nagas, and Naga Pioneers groups. For some Nagas, including Phizo, independence from Britain and from India was the only acceptable option, and they would fight for that aim for decades to come.

Jesuit Missionaries

(Late 16th to mid 18th centuries): The Rites Controversy and Significance (as we talked about in class, the Jesuit experience in China served as a cultural bridge, but it ended in the mid-18th century due to the disputes over "rites," that is, whether Chinese converts could continue to practice their Confucian rituals as Christian converts. It also shows how deeply entrenched Confucian influence had become.

Akbar - Chua (more information on this Mughal emperor)

Akbar succeeded his father, Humayun, under a regent, Bairam Khan, who helped the young emperor expand and consolidate Mughal domains in India. ... Mughal India developed a strong and stable economy, leading to commercial expansion and greater patronage of culture. Akbar himself was a patron of art and culture. To a surprising extent, Akbar did not favor Muslims. In war, he crushed resisting factions with the same brutality whether they subscribed to Hinduism or Islam. He attacked corruption among the Muslim clergy and initiated sweeping reforms equalizing land privileges for holy men of all persuasions. Along with Muslim festivals, he celebrated Diwali, the Hindu festival of lights. Defying orthodox Islamic law, he granted non-Muslims permission to repair their temples and to build hew places of worship. He also de creed that Hindus who had been forced to convert to Islam could reconvert without being subject to the death penalty. Most dramatically, in 1579 Akbar abolished the jiziya, a mandatory tax levied exclusively on non-Muslims. Akbar reigned for fifty years (1556-1605) and.is known to this day as the Mughal Empire's most successful ruler. Many of his chief advisors were Persian, _and the philosophy, painting, and literature of the period all reflect his deep appreciation of Persian culture. His greatest failure was his attempt to create a new "order of faith" called Din-i-Ilahi, supposedly incorporating elements of Islam, Hinduism, and Zoroastrianism. Akbar's objective, it seems, was not to displace existing creeds but rather to establish "a sort of universalist religion, literally religion of God rather than of Muhammad, Christ or Krishna" but demanding "unquestioning loyalty to the person of Akbar" himself. Din-i-Ilahi found few takers in the empire, or even within the emperor's own family. Its establishment outraged orthodox Muslim leaders, who regarded it as heresy and attempted a revolt. The imperial champion of universal tolerance crushed this revolt ruthlessly.

Indian Mutiny (also Sepoy Mutiny/ First War of Indian Independence)

As long as the East India Company was in charge, its profits skyrocketed to the point that its dividend payouts were legendary, making its soaring stock the most sought-after by British investors. When its mismanagement and oppression culminated in the Revolt of 1857, called by many Indian historians. the First War of Independence but trivialized by the British themselves as the 'Sepoy Mutiny', the Crown took over the administration of this 'Jewel in the Crown' of Her Britannic Majesty's vast empire. But it paid the Company for the privilege, adding the handsome purchase price to the public debt of India, to be redeemed (both principal and generous rates of interest) by taxing the victims, the Indian people. The Indian Rebellion of 1857 was a major, but ultimately unsuccessful, uprising in India in 1857-58 against the rule of the British East India Company, which functioned as a sovereign power on behalf of the British Crown.

Mahalwari Revenue System

Existed in Western India. • The mahalwari system was introduced in 1833 by William Bentick. • This system was in operation in the Central Province, the North-West Frontier, Agra, Punjab, and the Gangetic Valley. • In this system, the land was divided into mahals. Each mahal comprised one or more villages. • Ownership rights were vested in the peasants. • A village committee was established in each village and was collectively responsible for the collection of taxes at the same rate as in the ryotwari system.

Martial Race Theory

Martial race was a designation created by army officials of British India after the Indian Rebellion of 1857, where they classified each caste into one of two categories, 'martial' and 'non-martial'. The ostensible reason was that a 'martial race' was typically brave and well-built for fighting, while the 'non-martial races' were those whom the British believed to be unfit for battle because of their sedentary lifestyles. However, an alternative hypothesis is that British-trained Indian soldiers were among those who rebelled in 1857 and thereafter recruitment policy favoured castes which had remained loyal to the British and diminished or abandoned recruitment from the catchment area of the Bengal army. The concept already had a precedent in Indian culture as one of the four orders (varnas) in the Vedic social system of Hinduism is known as the Kshatriya, literally "warriors." The scheme of recruitment was changed in 1917 when a 'territorial system' replaced the one based on martial race theory making it possible to recruit as many men as possible. A vigorous campaign got underway early in 1918 taking place country-wide, not just in the provinces housing the so-called 'martial races'. As Heather Streets has suggested, in the late nineteenth century, the language of martial races became increasingly associated with both masculinity and loyalty to the Raj contrasting 'martial men' with the educated, nationalist classes who were deemed to be 'effeminate babus'. The idea of 'prestige' was clearly racial with gendered overtones in its import, and it was the British emphasis on racial difference and the policy of 'martial race' recruiting that, in part, fed into and reinforced the gendered conception of India.

Dixie Mission

Mission that was mounted by the US Army Observer Group to the CCP headquarters in Yan'an was a missed opportunity in Sino-American relations. This was the first US military aircraft to ever land at the CCP's base. The group of nine members from the Dixie mission and the pilot had taken off from the China-India-Burma war headquarters at Chongqin and made a brief stopover in Xi'an. The task of the mission had been set out, in a memo from the Allied headquarters of the China-Burma-India theatre of operations to its leader, Colonel David D. Barrett. HE was to obtain such information as he could in the Communist-controlled areas, including the order of battle of CCP forced and their intelligence operations and a complete list of CCP officials, a "who's who" of Chinese Communism, and asked of information on assisting them and their war effort.

Boxer Uprising (Rebellion)

Represented the rise of Chinese nationalism. 1900-1901. Was an anti-imperialist, anti-colonial, and anti-Christian uprising that took place in China between 1899 and 1901, toward the end of the Qing dynasty. In 1900, in what became known as the Boxer Rebellion (or the Boxer Uprising), a Chinese secret organization called the Society of the Righteous and Harmonious Fists led an uprising in northern China against the spread of Western and Japanese influence there. The rebels, referred to by Westerners as Boxers because they performed physical exercises they believed would make them able to withstand bullets, killed foreigners and Chinese Christians and destroyed foreign property. From June to August, the Boxers besieged the foreign district of Beijing (then called Peking), China's capital, until an international force that included American troops subdued the uprising. By the terms of the Boxer Protocol, which officially ended the rebellion in 1901, China agreed to pay more than $330 million in reparations.

Treaty of Nanjing

Resulted from the First Opium War, and was signed on August 29, 1842. By its provisions, China was required to pay Britain a large indemnity, cede Hong Kong Island to the British, and increase the number of treaty ports where the British could trade and reside from one (Canton) to five. Among the four additional designated ports was Shanghai, and the new access to foreigners there marked the beginning of the city's transformation into one of China's major commercial entrepôts. The British Supplementary Treaty of the Bogue (Humen), signed October 8, 1843, gave British citizens extraterritoriality (the right to be tried by British courts) and most-favored-nation status (Britain was granted any rights in China that might be granted to other foreign countries). Other Western countries quickly demanded and were given similar privileges.

Jallianwala Bagh massacre

Something etched in India's collective memory. In 1919, British Indian army soldiers under the command of Brigadier General Reginald Dyer opened fire on a peaceful gathering of men, women, and children in Jallianwala Bagh ("park") in Amritsar. Dyer ordered one exit to the park be closed and the soldiers to reload and fire until they ran out of ammunition.

Subhas Chandra Bose

Subhas Chandra Bose was an Indian nationalist whose defiant patriotism made him a hero in India, but whose attempt during World War II to rid India of British rule with the help of Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan left a troubled legacy. Indian revolutionary prominent in the independence movement against British rule of India. He also led an Indian national force from abroad against the Western powers during World War II. He was a contemporary of Mohandas K. Gandhi, at times an ally and at other times an adversary. Bose was known in particular for his militant approach to independence and for his push for socialist policies. Silver assisted him, fled Germany in 1941.

Extractive Colony

The British colonial rulers had no interest in the well-being of the Indian people. India was an "extractive colony." Thanks to British imperialism, the organic development of the Indian state and its scientific, technological, industrial and civic institutions could not take place, as it did between the 16th and 18th centuries in Europe. Colonial exploitation happened instead. At the beginning of the eighteenth century, as the British economic historian Angus Maddison has demonstrated, India's share of the world economy was 23 percent, as large as all of Europe put together. (It had been 27 per cent in 1700, when the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb's treasury raked in £100 million in tax revenues alone.) By the time the British departed India, it had dropped to just over 3 per cent. The reason was simple: India was governed for the benefit of Britain.

Cohong

The Cohong was a guild of Chinese merchants or cohongs who operated the import-export monopoly in Canton (now Guangzhou) during the Qing dynasty (1644-1911). The Canton System (1757-1842) served as a means for China to control trade with the West within its own country by focusing all trade on the southern port of Canton (now Guangzhou).

Flying Tigers

The nickname of U.S. fighter pilots, the American Volunteer Group (AVG), who fought against the Japanese in China during World War II. The matter of the closure of the Burma Road is a controversial one and some historians have supported the contention that, following the Japanese capture of Burma and the closure of the overland link to what was still an outpost of British India, resistance from Chongqing was impossible. In any case there was a strategy, masterminded by Claire Lee Chennault, whose independent American Volunteer Group, more popularly known as the Flying Tigers, had devised a plan for supplying Chongqing over the Himalayas (known colloquially to the allied military as 'the Hump').21 Equally controversial are the roles played by the CCP and the GMD in the resistance. Historians unsympathetic to the Communist Party, have claimed that the CCP, like the GMD, effectively sat out the war and waited for the United States to defeat Japan.22 There is no serious support for claims that th Guomindang put up any effective resistance, but there is convincing evidence that peasant guerrilla units under the control of the CCP in north ern China played a significant role in at least harrying the Japanese military so that they could not expand their area of control any further.

Riyatwari Revenue System

Took place in much of the south and parts of the north of India. • The ryotwari system was introduced by Thomas Munro in 1820. • The areas where this system operated was in the Madras and Bombay Presidencies, parts of Assam and Coorg Provinces of British India. • In this system, the ownership rights were given to the peasants who cultivated the land. • The EIC collected taxes directly from the peasants. • The taxation rate was 50% in dry (non-irrigated) land and 60% in irrigated land.

Extractive Colonialism

Under extractive colonialism the colonizing power established an "extractive state" whose purpose was to shift the resources of the colony to the colonizer, often with few to no protections for the native populace against abuse by the colonial authority. Extractive colonialism came in different forms in different societies, but elements of these institutions had a striking resonance for all countries that experienced them: external political dominance, economic exploitation, denial of rights, and suppression of cultural and ethnic pride.

The Hump

Until the Ledo Road could be completed, however, Nationalist China still had to be saved from asphyxiation. Moreover, airpower was crucial in the Allies' struggle against Japan. Airfields were thus as strategic as roads. Northeastern India became the centrepiece of an aerial lifeline to Chiang Kai-shek's regime. From June 1942 to September 1945, American planes risked the dangers of the aerial route across the Patkai and the eastern Himalayas - the 'Hump' - almost every day to airlift 650,000. tons of goods and weapons to Yunnan.36 Assam and Manipur had had very few airfields at the start of the war; by the end of it, the Patkai and Himalayan foothills were peppered with them.

Chiang Kai-shek

Was a Chinese politician and military leader who served as the leader of the Republic of China between 1928 and 1975, first in mainland China until 1949 and then in Taiwan until his death. Chinese military and political leader Chiang Kai-shek joined the Chinese Nationalist Party (known as the Kuomintang, or KMT) in 1918. Succeeding party founder Sun Yat-sen as KMT leader in 1925, he expelled Chinese communists from the party and led a successful unification of China. Despite a professed focus on reform, Chiang's government concentrated on battling Communism within China as well as confronting Japanese aggression. When the Allies declared war on Japan in 1941, China took its place among the Big Four. Civil war broke out in 1946, ending in a victory by Mao Zedong's Communist forces and the creation of the People's Republic of China. From 1949 until his death, Chiang led the KMT government in exile in Taiwan, which many countries continued to recognize as China's legitimate government.

Zheng He

Zheng He (A Muslim Eunuch at the imperial court) was a Chinese mariner, explorer, diplomat, fleet admiral, and court eunuch during China's early Ming dynasty. ... Zheng commanded expeditionary treasure voyages to Southeast Asia, South Asia, Western Asia, and East Africa from 1405 to 1433. A great Chinese explorer and fleet commander. He went on seven major expeditions to explore the world for the Chinese emperor and to establish Chinese trade in new areas. His seven total voyages were diplomatic, military, and trading ventures, and lasted from 1405 - 1433. However, most historians agree their main purpose was to promote the glory of Ming dynasty China.

Taiwan (list three points you have learned about the history of Taiwan)

A Chinese island separated from the SE coast of China by Taiwan Strait: a possession n of Japan 1895-1945; restored to China 1945; seat of the Republic of China since 1949. It was not until the defeat of the Chinese navy during the First Sino-Japanese War in 1894-95 that Japan was finally able to gain possession of Taiwan, and with it saw the shifting of Asian dominance from China to Japan. Until the early 1970s, the Republic of China was recognized as the sole legitimate government of China by the United Nations and most Western nations; who refused to recognize the People's Republic of China on account of the Cold War. The KMT ruled Taiwan under martial law until the late 1980s, with the stated goal of being vigilant against Communist infiltration and preparing to retake mainland China. Therefore, political dissent was not tolerated.

Sati (Chua)

A former practice in India whereby a widow threw herself on to her husband's funeral pyre. In 1829, British missionaries to India helped push through a ban on the practice, which represented the first British interference with an important Indian religious practice, and, as East India Company officials had feared, provoked broad resentment among the Hindu majority.

Mandate of Heaven

A principle used to justify the power of the emperor of China, as well as explaining suitability for the office. According to this belief, heaven bestows its mandate to a just ruler, the Son of Heaven. The Chinese philosophical concept of the circumstances under which a ruler is allowed to rule. Good rulers would be allowed to rule with the Mandate of heaven, and despotic, unjust rulers would have the Mandate revoked. Basically, a blessing to rule. "Progressive" in the sense that the Mandate of Heaven concept theoretically made it possible for people to rise up and overthrow an unqualified ruler.

Annie Beasant

ADVOCATED FOR HOME RULE Annie Besant, the Theosophist and Indian devotee (who was very influenced by the Irish Home Rule Movement), established the first Home Rule League in London in 1914. She then went to India and in cooperation with Tilak and other nationalist luminaries and with the support of Jinnah, head of the Muslim League, founded the All-Indian Home Rule League in 1916, a federation of Home Rule Leagues in various parts of the country. The movement sought self-government or home rule within the Empire. It actively promoted the cause of home rule across India, especially reaching out to students, and through publications such as New India attempted to energize the literate to promote its political goal. Annie Besant, née Wood, is a former British socialist, theosophist, women's rights activist, writer, orator, and supporter of both Irish and Indian self-rule. Another boost to the growing nationalist spirit in India came as a result of the arrest of Annie Besant in 1917 by the Madras government for the publication of seditious material. Her arrest aroused widespread hostility and led to protests throughout the country.

Mansabdari system (p. 72)—associated with the system Akbar established for administration of his empire's military and revenue systems

Akbar also developed sophisticated institutions for administering the empire's revenue and military systems. Needing a body of capable, talented men who could act as generals, governors, advisors, and administrators both in the provinces and at the imperial center, he created a new cadre of men known as mansabdars, or "holders of a mansab" (rank). A direct antecedent to the Indian civil service of British colonial and even modern times, the "mansabdari system" was a graded hierarchy of ranked officers appointed directly by the emperor. These were the great public figures in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, replacing the remnants of the Delhi Sultanate or its successors in every region where the empire expanded. The court closely monitored the mansabdars, increasing or decreasing their ranks according to their civil and/or military performance. Although Akbar recruited only several hundred mansabdars into his ruling elite, the total number grew to some eight thousand by the end of the seventeenth century. Yet even then the core of the ruling group remained at around five hundred. The highest-ranking mansahdars functioned as provincial governors, field generals, or central ministers, while middle-ranking mansabdars served as fort commanders or district or provincial officers. The lowest-ranking mansabdars held positions as office superintendents or keepers of arsenals.

The British East India Company

At the beginning of the eighteenth century, as the British economic historian Angus Maddison has demonstrated, India's share of the world economy was 23 percent, as large as all of Europe put together. (It had been 27 per cent in 1700, when the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb's treasury raked in £100 million in tax revenues alone.) By the time the British departed India, it had dropped to just over 3 per cent. The reason was simple: India was governed for the benefit of Britain. Britain's rise for 200 years was financed by its depredations in India. It all began with the East India Company, incorporated by royal charter from Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth I in 1600 to trade in silk and spices, and other profitable Indian commodities. The. Company, in furtherance of its trade, established outposts or 'factories' along the Indian coast, notably in Calcutta, Madras and Bombay; increasingly this involved the need to defend its premises, personnel and trade by military means, including recruiting soldiers in an increasingly strife-tom land (its charter granted it the right to 'wage war' in pursuit of its aims). A commercial business quickly became a business of conquest, trading posts were reinforced by forts, merchants supplanted by armies. The British East India Company (1600-1858) was originally a private company granted a trade monopoly with the East Indies by Queen Elizabeth I. Its success in extracting concessions from native rulers eventually led to its de facto control over much of modern India between 1757 and 1858.

Moa Zedong

Became one of the leading members of the CCP during and after the Long March. led communist forces in China through a long revolution beginning in 1927 and ruled the nation's communist government from its establishment in 1949. Mao Zedong was one of the most important leaders during the 20th century. His most prominent accomplishment was the establishment of the People's Republic of China. His other achievements include leading his people on The Long March, over four thousand miles to keep the Communist movement alive.

"Fourteen Points"

China felt snubbed by Wilson/the US in the aftermath of WW1. The peace conference of 1918-19 may have had high ideals but it was undermined by subterfuge, intrigue and that word again, betrayal. The Chinese delegates refused to sign the Versailles treaty, and with good reason. The treaty gave Japan a foothold in China that would lead to outright invasion. Point 5 of US President Woodrow Wilson' 14 Points as principles for peace called for settling colonial claims such that ... the interests of the populations concerned must have equal weight with the equitable claims of the government whose title is to be determined. This was interpreted, rightly by China, as covering their claim to Qingdao and even the other treaty ports. So, the Chinese delegation to Versailles claimed that secret agreements and arrangements were an insult to Wilson's 14 Points. But Wilson was deeply compromised. To make his League of Nations work he needed Japan. This was the fatal design flaw. The irony, of course, was that it was the US senate, in November 1919, that voted against joining the league. China joined the Allies the same year as the United States but China stands accused, in some quarters, of opportunism - a harsh judgment not as frequently passed on the US. Almost 140,000 Chinese served in France, as laborers, doing essential maintenance work on roads, trenches, railways and tanks and making up for the drastic manpower shortage by working in French factories and fields.

Sun Yat-sen

China's republic revolution: 1905-1912. He is the father of the Chinese Republic. Sun was a nationalist revolutionary who believed that the only way for China to move forward in the early 1900's was for the country to become a republic and adopt western ways in industry, agriculture etc. ... He became a professional revolutionary. Sun Yat-sen is known as the 'father of modern China'. He spent his adult life fighting against imperial China and the ruling Qing dynasty. First as revolutionary leader and later as politician. ... So he reformed it as China's National People's party. He represents the end of the Manchu dynasty (1912).

Collective Memory

Collective memory is simply "public recollection—the act of gathering bits and pieces of the past and joining them together in public." Collective memory is ultimately the linking mechanism between past trauma and any ongoing response to that trauma. Collective memory of trauma has also been shown to be inter-generational. Studies show that remembrance of trauma has been passed down to the next generation channeled through survivors and survivor groups. Research has focused on the inter-generational effects of the Holocaust, "perhaps the most dramatic example of the extreme victimization of a specific group." Children and grandchildren can serve as re-activators of trauma, while in Israel the phrase "second generation" is commonly used to describe the grown children of Holocaust survivors.

Robert Clive

Colonialists like Robert Clive, victor of the seminal Battle of Plassey in 1757 that is. seen as decisively inaugurating British rule in India, were unashamed of their cupidity and corruption. On his first return to England Clive took home £234,000 from his Indian exploits (£23 million pounds in today's money, making him one of the richest men in Europe). He and his followers bought their 'rotten boroughs' in England with the proceeds of their loot in India ('loot' being a Hindustani word they took into their dictionaries as well as their habits), while publicly marveling at their own self-restraint in not stealing even more than they did. Clive came back to India in 1765 and returned two years later.to England with a fortune estimated at £400,000 (£40 million today). After accepting millions of rupees in 'presents', levying an annual tribute, helping himself to any jewels that caught his fancy from the treasuries of those he had subjugated, and reselling items in England at five times their price in India, Clive declared: 'an opulent city lay at my mercy; its richest bankers bid against each other for my smiles; I walked through vaults which were thrown open to me alone, piled on either hand with gold and jewels... When. I think of the marvelous riches of that country, and the comparatively small part which I took away, I am astonished at my own moderation.' And the British had the gall to call him 'Clive of India', as if he belonged to the country, when all he really did was to ensure that a good portion of the country belonged to him.

Confucianism

Confucius (or Kongzi) was a Chinese philosopher who lived in the 6th century BCE and whose thoughts, expressed in the philosophy of Confucianism, have influenced Chinese culture right up to the present day. ... Chief among his philosophical ideas is the importance of a virtuous life, filial piety and ancestor worship. The system of ethics, education, and statesmanship taught by Confucius and his disciples, stressing love for humanity, ancestor worship, reverence for parents, and harmony in thought and conduct. Confucianism holds as the Five Key Relationships; they are the relationship of ruler to subject, father to son, husband to wife, elder to younger and friend to friend. If one follows the concept of Li, each of these relationships will be marked with harmony.

Tirap Frontier Tract

Dramatic in itself, the impact of militarization on the Patkai should further be grasped in terms of the momentum it generated for administrative expansion in the highlands. Hard-pressed to cope with the challenges of Allied presence, colonial authorities noticeably stepped up their presence. The biggest challenge was to intensify government control in administered areas, and to expand it in the un-administered Naga hills and eastern Himalayas. In 1943, an Adviser to the Governor of Assam was especially appointed to spearhead the momentum and hire more frontier staff. That same year, a new administrative unit, the Tirap Frontier Tract, brought the areas around the Ledo Road under closer administration. Traversed by the Ledo Road, the new Tirap Frontier Tract turned into 'the most glorious "hotch-potch" imaginable': workers brought into the hills to work on military projects (many of them Adivasis from Assam's tea plantations); Chinese soldiers under American command; Gurkhas, Sikhs, or Punjabis from the Indian Army; Nepali graziers and tribals from Assam's 'settled' districts; and Kachin refugees from Burma's Hukawng Valley.

Settler Colonialism

Extractive colonialism transformed pre-colonial societies, while settler colonialism often displaced them with populations from elsewhere. Colonial settlers like the British knew that the support of the British government would wane unless they demonstrated a commitment to British institutions and social practices. The "mock Raj" instituted some of the same social boundaries the British had adopted in India, such as separate clubs, parks, schools, and residences. The desire to maintain British "ethnicity" often went hand in hand with a dehumanization of the Chinese and little regard for their person or life.

Maritime Expeditions

From 1405 until 1433, the Chinese imperial eunuch Zheng He led seven ocean expeditions for the Ming emperor that are unmatched in world history. These missions were astonishing as much for their distance as for their size: during the first ones, Zheng He traveled all the way from China to Southeast Asia and then on to India, all the way to major trading sites on India's southwest coast. In his fourth voyage, he traveled to the Persian Gulf. But for the three last voyages, Zheng went even further, all the way to the east coast of Africa. This was impressive enough, but Chinese merchants had traveled this far before. What was even more impressive about these voyages was that they were done with hundreds of huge ships and tens of thousands of sailors and other passengers. Over sixty of the three hundred seventeen ships on the first voyage were enormous "Treasure Ships," sailing vessels over 400 hundred feet long, 160 feet wide, with several stories, nine masts and twelve sails, and luxurious staterooms complete with balconies. The likes of these ships had never before been seen in the world, and it would not be until World War I that such an armada would be assembled again. The story of how these flotillas came to be assembled, where they went, and what happened to them is one of the great sagas — and puzzles — in world history.

What are the four goals of comparative research? (Heuristic, descriptive, analytical, and estranging)—make sure you know what each of these goals of comparative research represents (pp. 13-14).

Heuristic - Heuristic comparison aims toward generating new questions and problems: we ask whether something that occurs in case A might also have occurred in case B. Descriptive - With descriptive comparison, we aim to clarify case A by contrasting it with case B, something that alone enables us to identify case A's particularity. Analytical - With analytical comparison, we seek to answer casual questions, to discover robust tendencies, to test hypotheses. Estranging - Fourth aim is to introduce a certain distance from the paradigmatic nature of the comparatum (for example, the Homeric epic, which for Hegel was the standard of comparison for all epics everywhere), unsettling its self-evident nature, so that it becomes just one case among other possibilities, and hence, "estranged."

Idiographic

History is a discipline of context. It deals with a particular set of actors in a particular place. It does not generalize, and understands each unique as unique rather than typical. The historian is more likely to emphasize particularistic, unique features of individual episodes of social phenomena. Synergy between IR and history, two sets of scholars in IR and history approach subject matters differently, analysis of singular events in history, analysis of patterns in political science.

Verstehen or empathetic understanding (Schroeder)

History seeks to "explain" events and developments not by assigning specific causes for them, but by thinking one's way into them and seeing them from inside through a process of empathetic understanding, or Verstehen. As for empathy and Verstehen, they may be useful, even important, as one way to arrive at the kind of judgments historians make. The possibility of achieving some degree of empathetic understanding of human conduct, furthermore, is one presumption for the possibility of historical knowledge. That is, history presumes the possibility of understanding human actions and experiences from inside, as human beings, in certain ways not open to us-at least to the same degree--in dealing with other objects of knowledge. 5 Yet this does not mean either that empathetic understanding is the main goal of historical research, or that it constitutes the sole or main ground for historical judgments. It may or may not help us understand the origins of World War II or the Holocaust to be able somehow empathetically to understand the individual mind-set of Adolf Hitler or the collective mind-set of members of the SS. Empathetic understanding of this sort, however, Even where and if it is possible and helpful, in no sense constitutes for the historian the explanation for the war or the Holocaust, or substitutes for it, or is required for it. For that explanation historians look for much the same things political scientists seek clear assignable causes resting on evidence subject to intersubjective test and verification and capable of supporting broad. significant generalizations and patterns.

Subhas Chandra Bose

If the Japanese were to profit from the INA and the League, they needed someone other than Mohan Singh or the ageing Rashbehari Bose to lead them. For more than a year they I had had their eye on a man who was ideally suited for the job, and who wanted to have it as much as they wanted to give it to him. But this man, Subhas Chandra Bose (no relation to Rashbehari), was in Germany. Between 1933 and 1936 Bose had lived in Europe, spending much of his time in Italy and Germany. These countries, along with Spain and Russia, provided him with models for the sort of government he wanted for India: not 'democracy in the mid-Victorian sense of the term', but 'government by a strong party bound together by military discipline'. Had asked Nazi Germany for help, but they declined. Bose was thrilled by the Japanese victories in South-East Asia, and realised at once that he could do more to further his aims there than in Europe. The Japanese made no secret of the fact that they would be glad to have him. After consulting with Rashbehari Bose, who said he would step down in Subhas Bose's favour, they arranged with the Berlin government to have Bose transferred to the East. Bose could not but be happy that Tojo had given him immediately what Hitler had always refused to consider: a clear statement of support and promise of non-interference. In his speeches he gratefully acknowledged Japan's assistance, but was independent enough to stress that he had accepted it to fulfil his own aims.

Civil (Imperial) Service Exam System

Imperial China was famous for its civil service examination system - was fully developed during the Qing dynasty. The system continued to play a major role, not only in education and government, but also in society itself, throughout Qing times. The examination system was an attempt to recruit men on the basis of merit rather than on the basis of family or political connection. Because success in the examination system was the basis of social status and because education was the key to success in the system, education was highly regarded in traditional China. And, the political bureaucracy is staffed by people due to their merits instead of heredity. a three-tiered system used to select government officials at local, provincial and national levels based on the level of performance of (male) exam takers who were invariably well-versed in Confucianism. It was held every three years.

Aurangzeb

In 1658, the Mughal Empire came into the hands of Aurangzeb Alamgir. Reversing earlier policies of religious tolerance, Aurangzeb imposed Sharia (Islamic law) throughout the empire. He razed thousands of Hindu temples and shrines, including the great temple of Mathura. Land that had formerly been granted to Hindu institutions was redistributed to Muslim clerics. In 1679, Aurangzeb revived the jiziya, the punitive tax imposed on non-Muslims, provoking heated protests across the empire. Aurangzeb's intolerance was an imperial catastrophe. But far more destructively, Aurangzeb's Muslim zealotry tore the fragile religious and political unity of the Mughal Empire to pieces. Until his death in 1707, Aurangzeb kept the empire intact, ruthlessly deploying enormous marauding armies to crush enemies, stamp out heretics, and extend Mughal rule over Shiite and Hindu lands. When he died, the Mughal Empire was larger than it had ever been or ever would be again. But because of all his constant warring-external and internal-the empire was also bankrupt. More than that, the hatreds and divisions he sowed made India easy prey for the divide-and-conquer stratagems that the British would soon deploy to great success, turning India from a subcontinental Muslim empire to a jewel in the crown of the largest Western empire the world had ever seen.

Canton (Guangzhou) Trade System

In 1720 the Chinese merchants of Guangzhou constituted themselves as a guild for the purposes of regulating their trade with the foreigners, and formed the basis of the Canton system, which was to exercise tight control over China's foreign trade for the following century. The rationale behind the Cohong system was that it would manage direct contact between foreign traders and the Chinese market. Although the main function of the Cohong was to supervise trade and (in theory) guarantee the payment of taxes due to the Court, it also had a quasi-diplomatic role and managed foreign relations on the south Chin the ensuing Amritsar protests met with a cruel massacre a coast on behalf of the Qing Imperial Court.

Gen. R. E. H. Dyer and the Punjab atrocities

In 1919, having banned public gatherings, Brigadier General R.E.H. Dyer ordered his men to open fire on some 10,000 unarmed peasants who had gathered in side a walled field in Amritsar in the Punjab, possibly to celebrate a Hindu festival. With no warning, Dyer's brigade fired 1,650 rounds of live ammunition into the helpless, trapped crowd. Hundreds of Indians were killed, and a thousand more were injured. Although recalled by London for "an error of judgment," Dyer was unrepentant. Indeed, he initially received a hero's welcome· back in England, where Conservatives gave him a jeweled sword bearing the motto "Savior of the Punjab." Over the next few· months, British soldiers inflicted ever more brutal punishment mf the increasingly restless Punjabis-flogging them, forcing them to crawl on hands and knees-"in defense of the realm."

Jagir (land assignments given to mansabdars or holders of a mansab)—see p. 72

In a measure that effectively merged the empire's revenue and military systems, mansabdars were given land assignments known as jagirs, the size and quality of which was carefully calculated to yield each mansabdar sufficient revenue to recruit, equip, train, and maintain a specified number of cavalry, available to the emperor on demand. Although the Delhi sultans had instituted a similar system, inherited from their Persianate political ancestors in Central Asia, Akbar's mansabdari system was far more sophisticated. Notably, Akbar instituted procedures intended to prevent mansabdars from acquiring independent power bases. In theory, a mansabdar's position could not be inherited, and a new appointee had to pay a large security bond; upon his death, a mansabdais property reverted to the state. Most importantly, these men were regularly rotated through the empire's domains-a measure aimed at discouraging their acquiring a local political base that might divert their loyalty from the imperial center. Since the extent of an emperor's patronage depended on the amount of land available to dispense in the form of revenue assignments, the Mughals had an inherent incentive to expand- their sovereign territory.

"Civilizing Mission"

In addition to the grievance of economic exploitation by the British, Indian nationalists were also acutely sensitive to political and cultural humiliation and subjugation. The British were on a "civilizing mission," and the dispensation of education and governance, and the maintenance of order were all from an untouchable position of superiority vis-à-vis the natives. There was no or limited franchise, no opportunity of advancement to the high echelons of government, segregated political and social institutions to maintain strict social boundaries, and the promotion of the English language at the expense of the vernacular. It was, to Indian nationalists, the rule of "the slave-master over the slave."

The Sepoy Mutiny (Chua)

Introduced in 1857, the Enfield rifle-invented by another Scot-was a technological triumph. All a soldier had to do was bite off the tip of the Enfield's cartridge and the new breech loading rifle would be ready to fire twice as fast and twice as far as the old muzzle loader. Unfortunately, rumors-possibly true soon spread that the Enfield cartridges were greased with a mixture of pig and cow fat. For Indian soldiers (sepoys), touching their lips to these cartridges therefore risked defilement-pork being repugnant to Muslims and cows sacred to Hindus. Indeed, the Indians were convinced that the Enfield rifle was part of "an insidious missionary plot to defile them" and impose Christianity on India. On top of all this, the British had just forcibly annexed the rich province of Oudh, ignominiously deposing its king-an act of utmost hubris given that 75,000 sepoys in the army that invaded Oudh hailed from that very province. Company after company of Indian soldiers refused to load the new Enfield rifles. In each case, the insubordinate sepoys were summarily discharged and stripped of their uniforms, weapons, and pensions. On May 9, 1857, eighty-five men from the Third Native Cavalry in Meerut were shackled and imprisoned for this act of disobedience. The next day, while their British officers were at church, the entire native brigade revolted, storming· the prison and freeing their comrades. The rampaging soldiers, joined by civilian mobs, then headed for Delhi, "burning bungalows and murdering every European man, woman and child they encountered." By the end of May what the British would call "the Mutiny" had spread across India. There followed two years of mutual slaughter and savagery.

Bhagat Ram Talwar

Known as the agent "Silver." One of the most extraordinary spies of the Second World War. Bhagat Ram Talwar played an active role in India's freedom struggle and was most known for his role as the friend and comrade of Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose. Talwar helped Bose escape from house arrest in 1941. They made the dangerous journey from Calcutta to Kabul and Netaji eventually made it to Germany. Talwar was a spy for at least four countries, namely, Germany, Japan, USSR and British-ruled India. He was a freedom fighter and a peasant leader in the North West Frontier Province (present-day Pakistan). He was an agent and prominent figure of the Kirti Kisan Party.

Lin Zexu

Lin Zexu, courtesy name Yuanfu, was a Chinese scholar-official of the Qing dynasty best known for his role in the First Opium War of 1839-42. He was from Fuzhou, Fujian Province. Lin's forceful opposition to the opium trade was a primary catalyst for the First Opium War. When, in the middle of the 1830s, the Daoguang emperor became alarmed over the growth of the opium trade carried on by British and Chinese smugglers—both for the obvious moral reasons and for the more practical one that even illegal imports had to be paid for with the export of Chinese silver—Lin submitted a memorial condemning a suggestion that the trade be legalized. In support of his position he cited the measures by which he had suppressed the drug traffic in the provinces of which he was then governor general. The emperor, who for almost two decades had vainly attempted to enforce the ban on the importation of opium, responded by appointing Lin imperial commissioner in late 1838, vesting him with extraordinary powers. After an unusual 19 personal audiences with the emperor, Lin proceeded to Guangzhou (Canton), the hub of the trade. His diary for this period survives and conveys a vivid picture of a Chinese official of the time at work: making the arduous journey from Beijing; perspiring in the heat of Guangzhou's subtropical climate as he kowtows before the very written instructions of the emperor; peremptorily summoning the British merchants and officials; vainly trying to make the corrupt Chinese officials, grown soft on the profits and use of opium, perform their duties; and composing an ode of apology to the god of the sea for defiling his ocean with confiscated opium. Lin was only too successful. He forced foreign merchants to surrender their stocks of opium for destruction and put pressure on them to guarantee that they would cease importing the cargo. Yet, when the British retaliated by ravaging large parts of South China, the emperor, who had personally approved Lin's tough policies, quickly dismissed him.

Mohan Singh

Mohan Singh was an Indian military officer and member of the Indian Independence Movement best known for his role in organising and leading the First Indian National Army in South East Asia during World War II. Resentful of discrimination in the Indian army, and influenced by nationalist ideas, Singh agreed to work with Japanese major Fujiwara to win over Indian prisoners of war. Two days after the fall of Singapore, the two men addressed a huge assembly of Indians in a city park. Fujiwara told them: The independence of India is essential for the independence of Asia and the peace of the world.... Japan is willing to give all-out aid and assistance to Indians in East Asia to achieve their aspirations. Singh announced that he was forming, with Japanese help, the Azad Hind Fauj or Indian National Army, and asked for volunteers. The initial reaction to his proposal was mixed, but before long thousands of Indian soldiers and civilians had agreed to join the INA.

1916 Lucknow Conference

Most importantly, at the Lucknow conference of the INC in 1916, moderates and more revolutionary groups united, and the Muslim League joined forces with the INC temporarily setting aside their differences. The Lucknow conference drafted a plan to be initiated after the war for increased self-governance along with other reforms that they proposed to the British. During the war, then, nationalist activism flourished along with support for the Empire's war effort. The Lucknow Pact was an agreement that reached between the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League at the joint session of both the parties held in Lucknow in December 1916. Through the pact, the two parties agreed to allow overrepresentation to religious minorities in the provincial legislatures. The Muslim League leaders agreed to join the Congress movement demanding Indian autonomy.

Zamindari Revenue System

Mostly in eastern India and a third of the Madras Presidency. Revenue was divided into 11 parts, 10 went to East India Company. British government Zamindars Farmers. • The Zamindari system was introduced by Lord Cornwallis (Governor-General of Bengal) in 1793 through the Permanent Settlement Act. • This system was introduced in the provinces of Bengal, Orissa, and Varanasi. • This system was also known as the Permanent Settlement System. • Zamindars were recognized as owners of land and were given the right to collect revenue from the peasants. • The realized amount would be divided into 11 parts with 1/11th of the share going to the zamindars and 10/11ths going to the East India Company.

New Culture Movement (China)

Movement of the mid 1910s and 1920s sprang from the disillusionment with traditional Chinese culture following the failure of the Chinese Republic - founded in 1912 - to address China's problems. People began to revolt against traditional, Confucianist forms of thought. hey called for the creation of a new Chinese culture based on global and western standards, especially democracy and science. Younger followers took up their call for: • Vernacular literature • An end to the patriarchal family in favor of individual freedom and women's liberation • View that China is a nation among nations, not as a uniquely Confucian culture. • The re-examination of Confucian texts and ancient classics using modern textual and critical methods, known as the Doubting Antiquity School • Democratic and egalitarian values • An orientation to the future rather than the past

New Youth

Part of the "new culture" movement in the early years of the Chinese Republic (1912-1920). Was a Chinese magazine in the 1910s and 1920s that played an important role in initiating the New Culture Movement and spreading the influence of the May Fourth Movement. "Down with Confucianism, and Up with Mr. Science and Mr. Democracy."

Rowlatt Act (Chua)

Postwar India (WW1) was tumultuous. A growing spirit of national awareness and pride pervaded the country, as did mounting anger at the diversion of India's wealth to Britain's imperial needs. The global economy, too, was changing. Protectionism surged around the world. In India, urbanization and unemployment set in even as new Indian-owned industries began to emerge. British-style education had been a double-edged sword; more and more Indians demanded the freedoms they had studied or seen firsthand overseas. Waves of protests, marches, strikes, and political agitation swept the Indian subcontinent, punctuated by bursts of violence. For the Anglo-Indian community, all this change was profoundly threatening. Even as Whitehall continued to draft progressive Indian reform measures from afar, the British government in India enacted the repressive Rowlatt Acts, imposing curfews on natives and curtailing rights of protest, essentially extending martial law for three years after the war.

Inner Line

Prewar determination: What's more, colonial constructions of the Nagas or the Kukis as fundamentally alien and beyond the pale of modernity came to underpin the entire logic of British rule in the region: the region was insulated from the outside world and from direct state control. From 1873 onwards, an Inner Line prohibited British subjects from entering the hills without a government permit, and Patkai inhabitants from crossing into 'settled' areas - further cutting off trade, interaction, and cultural networks between hills and plains.17 The Inner Line also became the territorial limit of colonial direct rule: the Patkai was deemed economically uninteresting and too backward for regular administration. Early twentieth-century constitutional reforms had reinforced the divide between hills and plains: when British authorities decided to implement limited power devolution in India and Burma, they decided that trans-Inner Line areas were too backward and too different to be concerned. The Patkai would remain beyond the pale of elected Indian governments. War brought nationalists beyond inner line, however. And it was eventually destroyed following the war. Isolation for the Patkai was no more.

Battle of Plassey

The Battle of Plassey was a decisive victory of the British East India Company over the Nawab of Bengal and his French allies on 23 June 1757, under the leadership of Robert Clive. The battle consolidated the Company's presence in Bengal, which later expanded to cover much of India over the next hundred years. In 1757, under the command of Robert, later Lord, Clive, the Company won a famous victory in Plassey over a ruling nawab, Siraj-ud-Daula of Bengal, through a combination of superior artillery and even more. superior chicanery, involving the betrayal of the nawab by one of his closest nobles, Mir Jafar, whom the Company duly placed on his throne, in exchange for de facto control of Bengal. Clive soon transferred the princely sum of £2.5 million (£250 million in today's money, the entire contents of the nawab's treasury) to the Company's coffers in England as the spoils of conquest.

English/British East India Company

The English East India Company upon arrival in the seventeenth century was a petitioner that sought the right to trade from the Mughals and obtained permission to do so from Emperor Jahangir in 1619. In 1757, the Company took the first major step toward the establishment of British colonial rule in India by defeating Sirajuddaula, the nawab of Bengal, at the Battle of Plassey. The East India Company's new financial and military strength gradually enabled them to extend their rule over the subcontinent. In 1857, a widespread revolt against British rule erupted. When it was crushed by the British at great expense, the Crown decided to dissolve the East India Company and instead rule India directly through a Viceroy governing as the Crown representative, a system that would remain until independence and partition in 1947. IN CHINA: After 1759, Guangzhou was designated the sole port open to Europeans. The isolation of the Qing empire from the realities of the outside world meant that the trade with the British and Dutch East India companies was still "nominally conducted as though it were a boon granted to tributary states." Ultimately, opium imports from India to China led to a crisis. Opium was produced in India and sold at auction under official British auspices and then taken to China by private British traders licensed by the East India Company. Opium sales at Guangzhou paid for the substantial tea trade to London. The reversal of the balance of trade and the drain of silver from China to pay for increasing imports of opium, combined with the societal effects of opium addiction, alarmed the Qing. The ensuing clash resulted in the Opium War of 1839-42, and China's defeat in that conflict secured Qing agreement to the Treaty of Nanjing in 1842 , substantially increasing British access to Chinese ports.

The Ghadar Party

The Ghadar Party was an Indian revolutionary organization primarily founded by Indians. The party was multi-ethnic and had Sikh, Hindu and Muslim leaders. The party was headquartered in San Francisco, United States. The Ghadar Party, as the Hindustani Association of the Pacific Coast soon came to be known, was an unlikely source for postwar colonial neuroses even with the wide circulation of its publications and the opportunities provided by the outbreak of the First World War. There was no systematic planning to complement the romantic aspiration of returning to India to orchestrate an uprising of the type seen in the rebellions and mutinies of 1857: 'What is our name? Revolt. What is our work? Rebellion. Where will the mutiny break out? In India. When? In a few years.'Ghadar was being monitored by British Intelligence from its inception, its early leaders were arrested and deported, and there was little enthusiasm or support for Ghadar among German diplomatic staff in the United States. Plans of what to do upon arrival in India were only hurriedly sketched out a few weeks after the start of the First World War and only as migrant laborers-turned revolutionaries were already en route to India. By the end of the First World War, however, the use of mass arrests, internment and trials/tribunals ensured that the Ghadar Party had effectively been quashed.

The Hump (Heehs)

The Hump was the name given by Allied pilots in the Second World War to the eastern end of the Himalayan Mountains over which they flew military transport aircraft from India to China to resupply the Chinese war effort of Chiang Kai-shek and the units of the United States Army Air Forces (AAF) based in China. But the north-eastern part of the country was vulnerable to attack, and the British soon turned this region, and much of the rest of India as well, into a huge military camp. More than 200 airfields were built, some of which became points of origin for supply flights to China across 'the hump' of the Himalayas.

Indian National Army (INA)

The Indian National Army was an armed force formed by Indian nationalist Rash Behari Bose in 1942 in Southeast Asia during World War II. Its aim was to secure Indian independence from British rule. It formed an alliance with the Empire of Japan in the latter's campaign in the Southeast Asian theatre of WWII. For three long months, the Allies fought tooth and nail against the Japense in Burma and sometimes against the odds to repel the Japanese and the Indian National Army (INA). Fought in rugged, forested terrain and in the midst of the monsoon, Imphal and Kohima saw some of the fiercest hand-to-hand fighting in the Second World War.

Japanese 15th Army

The Japanese 15th Army was an army of the Imperial Japanese Army during World War II. It was involved in the invasion of Burma in December 1941 and served in that country for most of its war service. The Japanese Burma Area Army was formed on 27 March 1943, under the control of the Southern Expeditionary Army Group as a garrison force to defend the nominally-independent State of Burma against liberation by British forces based in neighboring India. On December 11th, 1941, three days after the start of the Malayan campaign, the Japanese 15th Army moved across Thailand into Burma. Advancing against ineffective opposition, they reached Rangoon by March. Once Burma's capital and main port had fallen, the loss of the rest of the country was a foregone conclusion. Sweeping north, practically annihilating the Chinese forces defending Toungoo, the imperial army reached Lashio, the southern terminus of the Burma Road. Achieving their main objective in Burma by closing the only supply route to Chungking, the Japanese pursued the Chinese across the border into Yunnan, and forced Indian and British troops to withdraw, demoralised and in disarray, into Assam in north-east India. In just five months a relatively small Japanese army had conquered most of South-East Asia. Took Malaya and Burma from British.

The McCartney Mission

The Macartney Embassy, also called the Macartney Mission, was the first British diplomatic mission to China, which took place in 1793. It is named for its leader, George Macartney, Great Britain's first envoy to China. The goals of the mission included the opening of new ports for British trade in China, the establishment of a permanent embassy in Beijing, the cession of a small island for British use along China's coast, and the relaxation of trade restrictions on British merchants in Guangzhou (Canton). Macartney's delegation met with the Qianlong Emperor, who rejected all of the British requests. Although the mission failed to achieve its official objectives, it was later noted for the extensive cultural, political, and geographical observations its participants recorded in China and brought back to Europe.

Mansabdari system

The Mansabdar was a military unit within the administrative system of the Mughal Empire introduced by Akbar. The word mansab is of Arabic origin meaning rank or position. The system, hence, determined the rank of a government official and also other military generals. In India, both the period of the Mughal empire and the period between the decline of the Mughals and the ascent of the British were characterized by political decentralization. Even during the height of its power under Emperor Akbar, when the Mughals had territorial control over much of the subcontinent, conquered territories were ruled either by the original king who now swore allegiance to the Mughals or through a descendant of the existing ruling family, who was set up as head of state by the emperor. Thus a network of alliances was built up with the regional rulers who were drawn into defending and administering the empire through the mansabdari system. Mansab means "rank," and a mansabdar was the holder of an official rank of anything from ten to five thousand and sometimes even ten thousand. A mansabdar of ten was expected to have ten men under his command and so on. Other than these tasks, these regional rulers remained largely autonomous.

Marco Polo Bridge Incident

The Marco Polo Bridge Incident, also known by Lugou Bridge Incident or Double-Seven Incident, was a battle between the Republic of China's National Revolutionary Army and the Imperial Japanese Army. It is widely considered to have been the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War. In 1931 Japan occupied Manchuria (now Northeast China) and established the puppet state of Manchukuo (Manzhouguo), spending large sums to develop the region's industry and continuing to expand their occupation into northern China around Beiping and Tianjin. This violation of China's territorial integrity produced a growing anti-Japanese movement in China. By 1937 this movement had grown so strong that the Chinese communists and Nationalists agreed to end their civil war and form a United Front against further Japanese aggression. Before the incident occurred, the Japanese army had occupied Fengtai, the railway junction close to the Marco Polo Bridge, southwest of Beiping. On the night of July 7, 1937, a small Japanese force on maneuvers near the Marco Polo Bridge demanded entry to the tiny walled town of Wanping in order to search for one of their soldiers. The Chinese garrison in the town refused the Japanese entry; a shot was heard, and the two sides began firing. The Chinese government, under strong anti-Japanese pressure, refused to make any concessions in the negotiation of the dispute. The Japanese also maintained their position. As a result, the conflict continued to grow. As the fighting spread to central China, the Japanese scored successive victories. The Japanese government, under mounting public pressure not to retreat, decided to seek a quick victory in China. However, this eluded them, and the two sides plunged into what was to become the Sino-Japanese War (1937-45) and, in 1941, the Pacific theatre of World War II.

Rape of Nanking (Nanjing)

The Nanjing Massacre, or Rape of Nanjing, was an episode of mass murder and mass rape committed by Japanese troops against the residents of Nanjing (Nanking), then the capital of the Republic of China, during the Second Sino-Japanese War. It took place in the days that followed the entry of the Imperial Japanese army into the former Nationalist capital on 13 December 1937. The Japanese troops embarked on a frenzied and unprecedented orgy of looting, burning, murder and rape that was not only unchecked by their officers but appears to have been encouraged by them. Two aspects of the atrocities in Nanjing made the events stand out. First, the scale of killings, rapes and mutilations was unparalleled in even the most brutal of modern warfare. Second, the testimonies of Chinese victims were supported by robust and consistent eye-witness reports from foreign residents of Nanjing who documented the massacre thoroughly and contemporaneously and published these accounts in the Western press. Although there is no agreement on the precise number of victims of the massacre, it is safe to conclude that as many as 200,000 people were probably killed during the Japanese occupation of Nanjing and that at least 20,000 women and girls were raped.

The First Opium War

The Opium Wars arose from China's attempts to suppress the opium trade. Foreign traders (primarily British) had been illegally exporting opium mainly from India to China since the 18th century, but that trade grew dramatically from about 1820. The resulting widespread addiction in China was causing serious social and economic disruption there. In spring 1839 the Chinese government confiscated and destroyed more than 20,000 chests of opium—some 1,400 tons of the drug—that were warehoused at Canton (Guangzhou) by British merchants. The British government decided in early 1840 to send an expeditionary force to China, which arrived at Hong Kong in June. The British fleet proceeded up the Pearl River estuary to Canton, and, after months of negotiations there, attacked and occupied the city in May 1841. Subsequent British campaigns over the next year were likewise successful against the inferior Qing forces, despite a determined counterattack by Chinese troops in the spring of 1842. The British held against that offensive, however, and captured Nanjing (Nanking) in late August, which put an end to the fighting.

Who were the Kukis, Meiteis, Nagas, Mizos, Noctes, Chins, Paites, and Kachins?

The Patkai region was therefore marked by abundant cultural, linguistic and religious diversity and fluidity. The Imphal Valley hosted the kingdom of Manipur, whose Meitei inhabitants spoke a Tibeto-Burman language and practised Hinduism. Naga groups holding a variety of indigenous beliefs lived in the central Patkai. Related people lived further to the north - such as the Noctes, influenced by Assamese Vaishnavism. Kachin groups inhabited the foothills east and west of the northern Patkai. In the south lived various 'Zo' groups - Chins, Paites, Kukis, Mizos. Many of these groups were still on the move when colonial rule first arrived in northeastern India. From one angle they arguably formed a ethno-geographic space in its own right, Zomia, rather than being part of the more familiar geographic constructions of South, Southeast, or Inner Asia. War would eventually blur these groups together more or less.

Treaty of Versailles

The Treaty of Versailles while primarily focused on Germany, had dramatic consequences for China. This was a direct result of the 19th Century 'Scramble for Concessions', which had left Germany in charge of sections of China including Shandong. The situation was further complicated by the fact that after the death of Yuan Shikai in 1916, China had effectively broken apart as a unitary state as competing regional military warlords carved out their own feudal kingdoms and sought to enrich themselves at the expense of China itself. Convinced that Woodrow Wilson's idealism would lead to Shandong being returned to China, the Chinese delegation were shocked to discover that this wasn't the case. In fact, China failed to achieve all three of the main goals for the treaty negotiations which were: 1. The return of Shandong to China 2. The withdrawal of the foreign concessions in China 3. The cancellation of Japan's 21 Demands of 1915 Indeed, the Chinese delegation refused to agree to the Treaty of Versailles and China never signed it.

Collective Trauma

The concept of colonialism as trauma is particularly true for India and China, which attach immense significance to their colonial past. India and China underwent very different experiences of colonialism. Yet the "intensity" of this experience was similar for the two countries—both India and China regarded and responded to colonialism as a collective historical trauma. As a result, they have a self-definition of victimhood. By this I mean, they believed themselves to have been victimized, and, as a consequence, adopt the position of victim in their responses to international issues even today. As such they have a dominant goal of victimhood: the desire to be recognized and empathized with in the international system as a victim. The effects of trauma on a whole community are complex and controversial. Understanding these effects quickly requires confronting questions of memory and particularly transgenerational memory, as well as the nature of trauma's impact on communal life, core social institutions and cultural values. Implies a disruption of social order, causes anguish and social disorder to a nation.

Post-Imperial Ideology (PII)

The dominant goal of victimhood driving the subordinate goals of territorial sovereignty and status constitute a "post-imperial ideology" (PII) that influences international behavior. While PII affects a range of state behavior, its influence is most apparent when states perceive threats to sovereignty, when borders viewed as non-negotiable are contested or when a state's international prestige is jeopardized. The dominant goal of PII is victimhood. India's and China's traumatic colonial experience generated national beliefs involving a strong sense of victimization and suffering that continued after decolonization. Mark Ashley's work suggests that nationalists employ a narrative of national victimization that perceives the Self as worthy and superior to other cultures, identifies and denigrates an external Other who is inferior to the Self, and contains a discourse of real or invented suffering.78 While India and China do not necessarily hold an image of themselves as superior to other cultural communities (although they often do), they do identify "others" as victimizers who have caused them suffering or harm. While the colonizing powers receive considerable blame for their past exploitation, new victimizers not directly related to colonial-era exploitation can also play the role of the "other" in the evolving post-colonial narrative.

Rowlatt Act

The expectations that sustained and fed Indian nationalism during the war were cruelly thwarted by the passage of the Rowlatt Act in 1919 extending martial law, the ensuing Amritsar protests met with a cruel massacre and topped off by the disappointment nationalists felt about the political reforms embodied in the 1919 Government of India Act. As a consequence nationalist activism grew and there was a huge outpouring of support for Gandhi's movement of Satyagraha. In addition, Indian nationalism was furthered by U.S. President Wilson's advocacy of world peace in the context of national self-determination. Nationalists' expectations that there would be significant post-war political reform did not survive the war's end. They were utterly disappointed in the Montagu-Chelmsford reforms embodied in the 1919 Government of India Act. Their hopes were to be dashed further by the Rowlatt Act of 1919, extending martial law into the post-war years. The brutal suppression of the Amritsar uprising involving the slaughter of large numbers of people was viewed as another massive but unwilling and pointless sacrifice. It was this combination of events that led to Gandhi's declaration of a movement of civil disobedience or non-cooperation and his assuming leadership of the INC.

INA

The fall of Singapore was one of the greatest disasters ever suffered by the British armed forces. 85,000 men, what was left of the British, British-Indian, and Australian forces, surrendered to the invader. Not all the defeated soldiers had to spend the next three years in Japanese prison camps. Of the 60,000 Indians that surrendered, 25,000 chose to go over to the enemy. They became the core of the Indian National Army (INA), which two years later took part in the Japanese invasion of India. In that campaign INA soldiers faced their own. countrymen, members of General William Slim's mostly Indian 14th Army, which crushed them and the Japanese army they served, greatly hastening the end of the war. In May 1945 Rangoon was retaken by an lndian division; the same month the ragtag remains of the INA laid down their arms.

Akbar

The greatest of the Mughal emperors of India. He reigned from 1556 to 1605 and extended Mughal power over most of the Indian subcontinent. In order to preserve the unity of his empire, Akbar adopted programs that won the loyalty of the non-Muslim populations of his realm. He reformed and strengthened his central administration and also centralized his financial system and reorganized tax-collection processes. Although he never renounced Islam, he took an active interest in other religions, persuading Hindus, Parsis, and Christians, as well as Muslims, to engage in religious discussion before him. Illiterate himself, he encouraged scholars, poets, painters, and musicians, making his court a center of culture. He also abolished the jizyah, or tax on non-Muslims. Under him, Persian became the main language for societal advancement.

Spheres of Influence

The partition of parts of China among foreign powers by the end of the 19th century, hence the term "semi-colonialism." (please see the map on the "spheres of influence"). An example of spheres of influence was China in the late 19th and early 20th Century, when Britain, France, Germany, and Russia (later replaced by Japan) had de facto control over large swaths of territory. These were taken by means of military attacks or threats to force Chinese authorities to sign unequal treaties and very long term "leases".

The Indian National Congress

The so-called 'educated classes'—the professional and middle classes in India—who made up most of the active Indian nationalists, unstintingly came forward in support of the British war effort. The Indian National Congress (INC), dominated at the time by moderates, was especially vociferous in expressing support for the war effort. In Calcutta, in mid-August 1914, the INC passed a resolution of unwavering loyalty to the Empire in its current struggle. The INC was founded in the 1880s. In the years preceding the war, the INC had two factions—a more radical one associated with Tilak and a more moderate one with Banerjee at the helm.

Diwani

The transition to colonial rule in India took place in the mid-18th century with the gradual dismantling of the Mughal empire. The English East India Company upon arrival in the seventeenth century was a petitioner that sought the right to trade from the Mughals and obtained permission to do so from Emperor Jahangir in 1619. In 1757, the Company took the first major step toward the establishment of British colonial rule in India by defeating Sirajuddaula, the nawab of Bengal, at the Battle of Plassey. The Company, whose political and military power had hitherto been limited to a few factory forts in coastal areas, had been competing for turf with the French East India Company. The nawab had objected to the Company's building fortifications in Calcutta to ward off the French. The victorious British acquired vast rights to operate in the nawab's domain, concessions that enriched Company coffers and prepared them for the Battle of Buxar in 1764, where they decisively defeated the combined armies of the nawabs of Bengal and Awadh and the Mughal emperor. This victory forced the Mughal emperor to grant them the diwani, the right to collect the revenues of Bengal.

Persianate model of the state

Then from the early thirteenth century a second transregional model of state and society-the Persianate-appeared, first in north India and soon thereafter in the south. Each had much to say about state building. Toward the end of the twelfth century, a very different conception of interstate relations, kingship, and governance reached India when the northern half of the subcontinent-the Indo-Gangetic plain-was conquered by Persianized Turkish speakers who had reached the subcontinent from Central Asia and the Iranian plateau. Between the eighth and thirteenth centuries the caliph ("successor" to the Prophet Muhammad) in Baghdad theoretically ruled over the entire Muslim World, from Spain to eastern Afghanistan. But by the tenth century, his authority had shrunk to religious affairs only, while in the eastern, Persian-speaking half of the Muslim world leadership in worldly matters was seized by powerful ·con federations of ethnic Turks who had migrated southward into· the Muslim world from Central Asia. The most successful of the e converted the seminomadic traders into bands of armed followers, led by men who had taken the potent title and ideology of "sultan." By the twelfth century, as caliphal political authority continued to weaken, Persian theorists began-to endow these sultans with all the majesty, might, and ceremony that had been associated with pre-Islamic Persian emperors. For during those same centuries, the. modern Persian language had been crystallizing amid a general revival of memories of Persian history and culture before the Arab conquest (642). Like its Sanskritic predecessor, then, this Persianate model of worldly power was also sustained by a language and literature that was both prestigious .and transregional. Origination of dowry system.

The "Shantung Question"

Was a dispute over Article 156 of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, which dealt with the concession of the Shandong Peninsula. It was resolved in China's favor in 1922. During the First World War (1914-18), China supported the Allies on condition that the Kiautschou Bay Leased Territory on the Shandong peninsula, which had belonged to the German Empire prior to its occupation by Japan in 1914, would be returned to China. In 1915, however, China reluctantly agreed to thirteen of Japan's original Twenty-One Demands which, among other things, acknowledged Japanese control of former German holdings. Britain and France promised Japan it could keep these holdings. In late 1918, China reaffirmed the transfer and accepted payments from Japan. Article 156 of the Treaty of Versailles transferred the territory of Kiautschou as well as the rights, titles and privileges acquired by virtue of the Sino-German treaty of 1898 to the Empire of Japan rather than returning them to the Chinese administration. Despite its formal agreement to Japan's terms in 1915 and 1918, China denounced the transfer of German holdings at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919.

May 4th Movement

Was an anti-imperialist, cultural, and political movement growing out of student participants in Beijing on 4 May 1919, protesting against the Chinese government's weak response to the Treaty of Versailles, especially allowing Japan to receive territories in Shandong which had been surrendered by Germany after the Siege of Tsingtao. China had fallen victim to the expansionist policies of the Empire of Japan, who had conquered large areas of Chinese-controlled territory with the support of France, the UK and the US at the Treaty of Versailles. The demonstrations sparked national protests and marked the upsurge of Chinese nationalism, a shift towards political mobilization and away from cultural activities, and a move towards a populist base rather than intellectual elites. Many political and social leaders of the next decades emerged at this time. The term "May Fourth Movement" in a broader sense often refers to the period during 1915-1921 more often called the New Culture Movement.

Ledo Road

Was an overland connection between India and China, built during World War II to enable the Western Allies to deliver supplies to China, to aid the war effort against Japan — as an alternative to the Burma Road became required, once that had been cut-off ... The building process had enhanced the economy of the Patkai region. The Ledo Road was being built by people from all over India yet it simultaneously looked 'provincially American ..., with small specialised communities representing the same hometown or the same area'. The colonial compartmentalization between the Patkai and the rest of the world all but collapsed. Cost 148 million to build. As for the Ledo Road, it became not a geo-strategic artery - it was too late in the war for that - but an economic one, enabling greater movement of goods between China, Burma, Tibet, and eastern India than ever, untaxed. Assam authorities even suspected Chinese troops of importing illegal consumer goods from Yunnan, Sichuan, and Burma at the cost of the US army and without declaring it. The road, previously the pride of Allied wartime achievements, had morphed into an engine of systematic and large-scale smuggling.

Land Revenue Systems

• Tax on land was a major source of revenue for the kings and emperors of India • The ownership pattern of land changed over the centuries • Just prior to British rule, land was divided into jagirs. Jagirs were allocated to jagirdars. • The jagirdars split the land and allocated it to zamindars. • Zamindars let out the land to peasants for cultivation and in return collected part of their revenue as tax.