CIS History Chapter 19 & 20

USS Maine

Ship that was trying to rescue US citizens Ship that explodes off the coast of Cuba in Havana harbor The United States' involvement in Spanish Cuba in 1898 was strongly supported by Americans, following the explosion of the USS Maine in Havana harbor

Middle-Class "WASPS"

-A new middle class formed included both professionals and a number of salaried employees, mostly specialized workers -Middle class families lived in suburban retreats, away from the city, allowing workers to separate work and home -Middle class women devoted their time to taking care of the home, employing one or two servants as well as the new appliances such as the gas cooking stove -The new middle class embraced "culture" as means of self-improvement. Middle-class women spent most of their time consuming, buying machine-made goods, packaged foods, manufactured clothing, and personal luxuries. Department stores and shopping became a pastime for women -Leisure activities reflected middle-class values -They engaged in the gospel of EXERCISE for physical and mental discipline, biking, hiking, camping, roller skating, and ice skating -Middle class children, not having to work, enjoyed creative play and physical activity such as summer camps and sports

How did the development of southern industry affect the lives of African Americans living in the South?

-Advances in southern industry did little to help African Americans -Southern workers rarely united across race lines -Wages throughout the South were low for both whites and blacks -Knights of Labor tried to have black and white workers get jobs, but they were accused of supporting "black domination," so they retreated -Although the majority continued to work in agriculture, large numbers found jobs in industries such as the railroad -They even gained skilled positions as bricklayers, carpenters, and painters. For the most part, however, African Americans were limited to unskilled, low-paying jobs. -In the textile mills and cigarette factories, which employed both black and white workers, the workforce was rigidly segregated. African Americans were assigned mainly to janitorial jobs

What factors contributed to the growth of government in the late nineteenth century?

-Before the Civil War, local governments attended mainly to the promotion and regulation of trade, and relied on private enterprise to supply vital services such as fire protection and water supply. As cities became more responsible for their residents' well-being, they introduced professional police and firefighting forces and began to finance school systems, public libraries, and parks. This expansion demanded huge increases in local taxation. -The Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) was created to bring order to the growing patchwork of state laws concerning rail-roads. The five-member commission appointed by the president approved freight and passenger rates set by the railroads. The ICC could take public testimony on possible violations, examine company records, and generally oversee enforcement of the law. -This set a precedent for future regulation of trade as well as for positive government. -It also marked a shift in the balance of power from the states to the federal government.

What contributed to the growing population of American cities?

-Cities grew at double the rate of the nation as a whole -Immigrants and their children were the major source of urban population growth -After the Civil War, most new immigrants settled in cities -Like rural migrants, immigrants came to the American city to take advantage of the expanding opportunities for employment. While many hoped to build a new home in the land of plenty, many others intended to work hard, save money, and return to their families in the Old Country

William Jennings Bryan

-Democratic candidate for president in 1896 under the banner of "free silver coinage" which won him support of the Populist Party -After seizing the Populist slogan "Equal Rights to All, Special Privilege to None," he now became a major contender for president of the United States, wooing potential voters in a two-year national speaking tour

Henry Ford

-Experimented with a gasoline-burning internal combustion engine for automobiles. American makers producing more than 4,000 by 1900. -At the forefront of technological advancements that fueled industrial growth

How and why did workers and farmers organize to participate in politics during this era?

-Farmers and workers began to organize and succeeded in building powerful national organizations to oppose, as a Nebraska newspaper put it, "the wealthy and powerful classes who want the control of government to plunder the people." As the nation's most important industry, the railroad played a large part in generating this unrest. By the end of the century, the communities whose livelihoods depended directly or indirectly on the railroads presented the most significant challenge to the two-party system since the Civil War—the populist movement Populist movement: -A major third party formed on the basis of the Southern Farmers' Alliance and other reform organizations -Many people rebelled through strikes Grange: -A national organization of farm owners formed after the Civil War

John D. Rockefeller

-Formed the Standard Oil Company & sought to control all aspects of the industry, from the transportation of crude oil to the marketing and distribution of the final products. By the end of the decade, after making shrewd deals with the railroads and underselling his rivals, he managed to control 90 percent of the oil-refining industry -Created the Standard Oil Trust, which, by integrating both vertically and horizontally, became a model for other corporations and an inspiration for critical commentary and antitrust legislation -Ruthlessly squeezed out competitors with unfair business practices

Social Gospel

-Growing number of clergy called for reconciliation of social reality with Christian ideals -Catholics joined social gospel movement in smaller numbers than Protestants -Women played key roles in the movement (To a greater degree than white women, African American women embraced the social gospel) -Like Edward Bellamy, a growing number of Protestant and Catholic clergy and lay theologians noted a discrepancy between the ideals of Christianity and prevailing attitudes toward the poor. They could no longer sanction an economic system that allowed so many to toil long hours under unhealthy conditions and for subsistence wages. They demanded that the church lead the way to a new cooperative order. Ministers called for civil service reform and the end of child labor

What were the sources of new labor being recruited for factory work in the Gilded Age America AND how did different labor unions try to protect themselves in this new economic environment?

-Immigrants, women, and children being recruited -Freight trains carried the bountiful natural resources, such as iron, coal, and minerals that supplied the raw materials for industry, as well as food and other commodities for the growing urban populations. -Invention of the lamp which burned for 13 hours -Knights of Labor -American Federation of Labor -People went on strikes

In what ways did the election of 1896 represent a turning point in U.S. political history?

-McKinley triumphed in the most important presidential election since Reconstruction -Bryan managed to win 46 percent of the popular vote but failed to carry the Midwest, West Coast, or Upper South, urban voters, or Catholics. -The Populist party dies, but their ideas survive -Apathy set in among voters at large, and participation spiraled downward from the 1896 peak when nearly 80 percent of the electorate turned out. VOTER TURN OUT GOES DOWN -Once in office, McKinley enlivened the executive branch and actively promoted a mixture of probusiness and expansionist measures -Nation returns to prosperity (bankruptcy act which eased pressure on small business, enforced anti trust in railways, oversaw Gold Standard Act)

Andrew Carnegie

-Offered a strikingly different model. He represented the "captain of industry," who had risen from the ranks through diligence, and who refused to worship wealth for its own sake. Late in his life, he outlined his personal philosophy in a popular essay, The Gospel of Wealth, explaining that "there is no genuine, praiseworthy success in life if you are not honest, truthful, and fair-dealing." -built an empire in steel. A genius at vertical integration, he undercut his competitors by using the latest technology and designing his own system of cost analysis. Carnegie managed the most efficient steel mills in the world

Phillipines

-The Philippines, another of Spain's colonies, seemed an especially attractive prospect, its 7,000 islands a natural way station to the markets of mainland Asia. -President McKinley had discussed the merits of taking the Pacific colony in the event of war with Spain. At the first opportunity, McKinley acted to take possession of these islands -The Filipino rebels, like the Cubans, at first welcomed American troops and fought with them against Spain. But when the Spanish-American War ended and they perceived that American troops were not preparing to leave, the rebels turned against their former allies and attacked the American base of operations -Predicting a brief skirmish, American commanders underestimated the population's capacity to endure great suffering for the sake of independence.

Why did the United States go to war with Spain in 1898, and with what results?

-The United States' involvement in Spanish Cuba in 1898 was strongly supported by Americans, following the explosion of the USS Maine in Havana harbor. The war with Spain was short, inexpensive, and had few casualties. American businesses tightened their hold on Cuban sugar plantations, while U.S. military forces oversaw the formation of a constitutional convention that made Cuba a protectorate of the United States -Paved the way for American domination of the island's sugar industry and contributed to anti-American sentiment among Cuban nationalists.

Hawaii

-The annexation of Hawai'i on July 7, 1898, followed nearly a century of economic penetration and diplomatic maneuver. American missionaries, who had arrived in the 1820s to convert Hawai'ians to Christianity -Missionaries wanted to buy land -American planters took a step further, arranging the overthrow of the weak King Kalakaua and securing a new government allied to their economic interests -Hawai'i was often viewed as a steppingstone to the vast Asian markets.

Frederick Winslow Taylor

-The founder of scientific management -The accelerating growth of industry, especially the steady mechanization of production, dramatically changed employer-employee relations and created new categories of workers. Both in turn fostered competition among workers and created conditions often hazardous to health -For most craft workers, the new system destroyed long-standing practices, chipped away at their customary autonomy, and placed them in competition with other, mainly unskilled workers. Frederick Winslow Taylor, the pioneer of scientific management, explained that managers must "take all the important decisions . . . out of the hands of workmen." Teams of ironworkers, for example, had previously set the rules of production as well as their wages, while the company supplied equipment and raw materials. Once steel replaced iron, most companies gradually introduced a new system. Managers now constantly supervised workers, set the pace of production and rate of payment, and introduced new, faster machinery that made many skills obsolete. said managers should make all decisions for workers

Panic of 1893

-The railroads, the major force behind economic growth, now helped to usher in a great depression. -Over-extended, especially in construction, the major rail lines went bankrupt & COLLAPSED. The business boom of nearly two decades ended, and the entire economy ground to a halt. -Agricultural prices plummeted, banks closed, businesses went bankrupt -Caused Coxey's Army

Thomas Edison & Menlo Park

-The year 1876 also marked the opening of Thomas Alva Edison's laboratory in Menlo Park, New Jersey, one of the first devoted to industrial research. Three years later, his research team hit upon its most marketable invention, an incandescent lamp that burned for more than thirteen hours. By 1882, the Edison Electric Light Company had launched its service in New York City's financial district. A wondrous source of light, electricity revolutionized both urban life and industry, soon replacing steam as the major source of power -He invented the alkaline storage battery, the phonograph, and the kinetoscope, the first machine to allow one person at a time to view motion pictures.

Yellow Journalism

-Type of sensational, biased, and often false reporting for the sake of attracting readers -Journalism that exploits, distorts, or exaggerates the news to create sensations and attract readers

Sherman Anti-Trust Act

-Was created to restore competition, but was actually used to restrict trade unions (who apparently stopped the free flow of labor) and helped consolidate business. -Prevented monopolies, but then it prevented a union because the the union was striking so that the trains couldn't run. They prevented trade, which was something the act said you can't do, so the act ended up working against the people it was supposed to protect, bc one result of monopolies is that the big managers don't have to pay common employees very much. From then on it was one of those "paper laws" that says it's gonna do something on paper but doesn't enforce it very well

Social Darwinism

-Whether following the rough road of Gould or the smooth path of Carnegie, the business community worked together to fashion the new conservative ideology of Social Darwinism, which purportedly explained, and justified, why some Americans grew rich while others remained poor -Social Darwinism superimposed the brutal struggle for existence that supposedly dominated nature onto modern society, and underscored the principle of "survival of the fittest."

Josiah Strong

A Congregational minister who had begun his career trying to convert Indians to Christianity stated: "commerce follows the missionary"

Farmers' Alliances

A broad mass movement in the rural South and West during the late nineteenth century, encompassing several organizations and demanding economic and political reforms -Southern Farmers' Alliance was the largest of several organizations that formed in the post-Reconstruction South to advance the interests of small farmers -The Southern Farmers' Alliance became a viable alternative to the capitalist marketplace—for white farmers -THEY HAD FEW RESERVATIONS/HESITATION ABOUT TAKING POLITICAL STANDS & ENTERING ELECTORAL RACES

Coxey's Army

A protest march of unemployed workers, led by Populist business man Jacob Coxey, demanding inflation and a public works projects to give people jobs -Coxey gathered the masses of unemployed into a huge army and then to march to Washington, DC, to demand from Congress a public works program -Voiced the public's impatience with the government's apathy toward the unemployed -Did not work, but inspired the idea of public works projects to provide jobs during the Great Depression on the 1930's

Pendleton Civil Service Act

Act that reformed the spoils system by prohibiting government workers from making political contributions and creating the Civil Service Commission to oversee their appointment on the basis of merit rather than politics -This measure allowed the president to create, with Senate approval, a three-person commission to draw up a set of guidelines for executive and legislative appointments. The commission established a system of standards for various federal jobs and instituted "open, competitive examinations for testing the fitness of applicants for public service." -Barred political candidates from funding their campaigns by assessing a "tax" on the salaries of holders of party-sponsored government jobs -many departments of the federal government took on a professional character similar to that which doctors, lawyers, and scholars were imposing on their fields through regulatory societies -Despite these reforms, many observers still viewed government as a reign of self-interest and corruption

Sherman Silver Purchase Act

Act which directed the Treasury to increase the amount of currency coined from silver mined in the West and also permitted the U.S. government to print paper currency backed by the silver -With the economy still in ruins and social unrest mounting, Republicans, Democrats, and Populists alike sought a solution in currency reform. A desperate President Grover Cleveland demanded the repeal of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act of 1890, which had restored government support for silver mining. He insisted that only the gold standard, an inflexible anchor for the real value of currency, could pull the nation out of depression -Required the government to purchase an additional 4.5 million ounces of silver bullion each month for use as currency -Increased the amount of silver the gov. baught for coinage, but the money supply did not increase enough to satisfy silver supporters

Frederick Jackson Turner

America's most famous historian who observed that the repeated experience of settling new frontiers across the continent had shaped Americans into a uniquely adventurous, optimistic, and democratic people -Said that humanity would continue to progress as long as there was new land to move into. The frontier provided a place for homeless and solved social problems.

Alfred Mahan

Captain of the U.S. Navy who was for imperialism. He thought that a bigger navy was needed to protect American ships -He believed that the future of military power lay in the navy. -Thought the US needed a standing navy -Insisted that international strength rested not only on open markets, but on the control of colonies. He advocated the annexation of bases in the Caribbean and the Pacific to enhance the navy's ability to threaten or wage warfare.

Chapter 19

Chapter 19

Chapter 20

Chapter 20

Gospel of Wealth

Created by Andrew Carnegie to recommend honesty and fair dealing Thesis that hard work and perseverance lead to wealth, implying that poverty is a character flaw. -Ninety percent of the nation's business leaders were Protestant, and the majority attended church services regularly. They attributed their personal achievement to hard work and perseverance and made these the principal tenets of a new faith that imbued the pursuit of wealth with old-time religious zeal.

Why did the United States take on imperialist ventures in the late nineteenth century?

During his 1896 campaign, William McKinley firmly committed himself to the principle of economic expansion. It was for him the proper alternative for a cooperative commonwealth. Indeed, he once described his "greatest ambition" as achieving American supremacy in world markets -US wanted to enforce treaties and protect overseas investments -Needed new markets, "Americans producing more than they can consume PEOPLE WHO HAD IMPERIALISTIC IDEOLOGIES o Josiah Strong: On Anglo-Saxons - minster who described the traits of the people of the US (Strong, Restless, Not Artistic) o Frederick Jackson Turner's Frontier Hypothesis (he was a professor of history) -Said it's in the United State's nature to expand & push people out of their land o Alfred Mahan on Sea Power -Captain of the U.S. Navy who was for imperialism. He thought that a bigger navy was needed to protect American ships

Conspicuous Consumption

Highly visible displays of wealth and consumption -the rich had created a new style of "conspicuous consumption." The Chicago mansion of real estate tycoon Potter Palmer, for example, was constructed without exterior doorknobs. Not only could no one enter uninvited, but a visitor's calling card supposedly passed through the hands of twenty-seven servants before admittance was allowed. The women who oversaw these elaborate households served as measures of their husbands' status by wearing jewels, furs, and dresses of the latest Paris design. Conspicuous consumption reached new heights of extravagance. In New York, wealthy families hosted dinner parties for their dogs or pet monkeys, dressing the animals in fancy outfits for the occasion. -The wealthy also became the leading patrons of the arts

Spanish-American War

In 1898, a conflict between the United States and Spain, in which the U.S. supported the Cubans' fight for independence -Men died from diseases, mainly yellow fever, typhoid, or malaria—ten times the number killed in combat. -Just as the Civil War inspired masses of women to form relief societies so, too, did the Spanish-American war -At the end of the Spanish-American war, the United States gained effective control over Cuba -American businesses proceeded to tighten their hold on Cuban sugar plantations, while U.S. military forces oversaw the formation of a constitutional convention that made Cuba a protectorate of the United States -Cuba was required to provide land for American bases; to devote national revenues to pay back debts to the United States

Grange

In many farming communities, the headquarters of the local chapter, known as the Grange (a word for farm), became the main social center, the site of summer dinners and winter dances -Weren't able to sell crops because they were producing too much & not enough people were buying them -The Granger movement spread rapidly, especially in areas where farmers were experiencing their greatest hardships. -In the hope of improving their condition through collective action, many farmers joined their local Grange -Grangers blamed hard times on railroads and banks that charged large fees for service -Mounted their greatest assault on the railroad corporations ****-Wanted to limit the salaries of public officials, widen the administration policies for state colleges, free silver (more dollars in circulation- so the buyers would have more money to spend), determined to buy less and produce more, and created a vast array of cooperative enterprises for both the purchase of supplies and the marketing of crops. They established local grain elevators, set up retail stores, and even manufactured some of their own farm machinery. - 1892 election = Populists gained some states' votes (THIS WAS THEIR PEAK) - 1896: William Jennings Brian = democratic candidate & he withheld populist ideals (populists approved of him because they wanted their ideas to be represented by him) However, the Republican candidate won the election -In order to make changes, they needed political power, so they formed the Populist party

Kinghts of Labor

Labor union that included skilled and unskilled workers irrespective of race or gender -Knights promoted economic cooperation & reached their peak during campaign for eight-hour workday -Endorsed: the restriction of child labor, a graduated income tax, more land set aside for homesteading, the abolition of contract labor, and monetary reform—to offset the power of the industrialists -They believed that the "producing classes," once freed from the grip of corporate monopoly and the curses of ignorance and alcohol, would transform the United States into a genuinely democratic society. -The Knights of Labor were crushed by Employers' associations who pooled funds to rid their factories of troublesome agitators, and announced that companies would no longer bargain with unions. They reinstituted the ten-hour day. However, the wage system had triumphed.

Jose Marti

Led the fight for Cuba's independence from Spain from 1895 through the Spanish-American War Also said Cuba should be free from the USA

Mail Order

Mail-order houses helped to get these new products for consumers. Accompanying the consolidation of the railroad lines, the postal system expanded. Rates were lowered for shipping freight and postage alike. By 1896, free rural deliv- ery had reached distant communities. Growing directly out of these services, the successful Chicago-based mail-order houses drew rural and urban consumers into a common marketplace. Sears, Roebuck and Company, and Montgomery Ward offered an enormous variety of goods, from shoes to buggies to gasoline stoves and cream separators. The mail-order catalogue also returned to rural folks the fruits of their own labor, now processed and packaged for easy use. The Sears catalogue offered Armour's summer sausage as well as Aunt Jemima's Pancake Flour and Queen Mary Scotch Oatmeal, both made of grains that came from the agricultural heartland. In turn, the purchases made by farm families through the Sears catalogue sent cash flowing into Chicago. Mail-order helped get products to consumers, reaching free rural delivery in distant communities by 1896. The Chicago-based mail-order houses drew urban and rural consumers into a common marketplace. Sears, Roebuck and Company, and Montgomery Ward offered a variety of goods, even giving rural consumers the fruits of their labor (post-production).

What were the effects of the expansion in the production of both capital goods and consumer goods?

New ways of production = Machines: -Machines, factory managers, and workers created a system of continuous production by which more could be made, and faster, than anywhere else on earth. Higher productivity depended not only on machinery and technology but on economies of scale and speed, reorganization of factory labor and business management, and the unparalleled growth of a market for goods of all kinds. All these changes depended on coal, a new source of fuel, which was widely used. Reliable and inexpensive sources of energy made possible dramatic changes in the industrial uses of light, heat, and motion. Equally important, coal fueled the great open-hearth furnaces and mills of the iron and steel industries. By the end of the century, the U.S. steel industry was the world's largest, churning out rails to carry trains and parts to make more machines to produce yet more goods. New systems of mass production replaced wasteful and often chaotic practices and speeded up the delivery of finished goods.

Pullman Strike

Pullman cut wages but refused to lower rents in the "company town", Eugene Debs had American Railway Union refuse to use Pullman cars, Debs thrown in jail after being sued, strike achieved nothing began May 11, 1894, with a walkout by Pullman Palace Car Company factory workers after negotiations over declining wages failed. These workers appealed for support to the American Railway Union (ARU), which argued unsuccessfully for arbitration. On June 20, the ARU gave notice that beginning June 26 its membership would no longer work trains that included Pullman cars. The boycott, although centered in Chicago, crippled railroad traffic nationwide, until the federal government intervened in early July, first with a comprehensive injunction essentially forbidding all boycott activity and then by dispatching regular soldiers to Chicago and elsewhere. While the use of an injunction for such purposes, upheld by the Supreme Court in 1895, was a setback for unionism, and while most public sentiment was against the boycott, George Pullman attracted broad criticism and his workers wide sympathy.

Election of 1896

Republican William McKinley defeated Democratic-Populist "Popocrat" William Jennings Bryan. 1st election in 24 years than Republicans won a majority of the popular vote -McKinley won after promoting the gold standard, pluralism & industrial growth -Triumphed in the most important presidential election since Reconstruction. -He ended the popular challenge to the nation's governing system -Both candidates supported white supremacy

Platt Amendment

Required Cuba to: 1.)provide land for American bases 2.) Pay back debts 3.) Sign no treaties detrimental to the United States 4.) Acknowledge the United States' right to intervene to protect its rights in Cuba

Tenements

Residential dwellings, once common in New York, built on tiny lots without regard to providing ventilation or light Faced with a population explosion and an unprecedented building boom, the cities encouraged the creation of many beautiful and useful structures, including commercial offices, sumptuous homes, and efficient public services. At the same time, cities did little to improve the conditions of the majority of the population, who worked in dingy factories and lived in crowded tenements. Open space decreased as American cities grew.

Grandfather Clauses

Rules that required potential voters to demonstrate that their grandfathers had been eligible to vote; used in some southern states to limit the black voters -The new restrictions struck especially hard at the voting rights of African Americans -Supreme Court ruled that poll taxes and literacy requirements enacted in order to prevent blacks (and some poor whites) from voting were a proper means of restricting the ballot to "qualified" voters.

Plessy v. Ferguson

Supreme Court decision holding that Louisiana's railroad segregation law did not violate the Constitution as long as the railroads or the state provided equal accommodations Supreme Court decision which legalized state ordered segregation so long as the facilities for blacks and whites were equal "separate but equal" -Deprived African Americans of equal rights and protection under the law

Ocala Demands

The Grangers/Populists wanted to press for a national third-party movement Represented the populist party's platform & demands: The farmers' Alliance demanded: (1) The direct election of senators (2) Lower tariff rates (3) A graduated income tax (4) A new banking system regulated by the federal government (5) An 8-hour work day (6) MOST AMBITIOUS THING: called government to build local warehouses

Homestead Strike

The Homestead strike, 1892, in Homestead, Pennsylvania, pitted one of the most powerful new corporations, Carnegie Steel Company, against the nation's strongest trade union, the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers. An 1889 strike had won the steelworkers a favorable three-year contract; now Andrew Carnegie was determined to break the union. His plant manager, Henry Clay Frick, stepped up production demands, and when the union refused to accept the new conditions, Frick began locking the workers out of the plant; on July 2 all were discharged. The union, limited to skilled tradesmen, represented less than one-fifth of the thirty-eight hundred workers at the plant, but the rest voted overwhelmingly to join the strike. The strike lost momentum and ended on November 20, 1892. With the Amalgamated Association virtually destroyed, Carnegie Steel moved quickly to institute longer hours and lower wages. The Homestead strike inspired many workers, but it also underscored how difficult it was for any union to prevail against the combined power of the corporation and the government.

Chain Stores

The chain store grew similarly, with a half-dozen springing up by 1900, the largest of which was A&P. Department stores similarly took over specialty shops with variety. -The Sears catalogue sent cash flowing into Chicago The chain store achieved similar economies of scale. By 1900, a half-dozen gro- cery chains had sprung up. The largest was A&P, originally named the Great Atlantic and Pacific Tea Company to celebrate the completion of the transcontinental railroad. Frank and Charles Woolworth offered inexpensive variety goods in five-and-ten-cent stores. Other chains selling drugs, costume jewelry, shoes, cigars, and furniture soon appeared, offering a greater selection of goods and lower prices than the small, inde- pendent stores. -National chain grocery stores, clothing shops, and pharmacies squeezed out local neighborhood businesses.

Vertical Integration

The consolidation of numerous production functions, from the extraction of the raw materials to the distribution and marketing of the finished products, under the direction of one firm -A firm gained control of production at every step of the way—from raw materials through processing to the transporting and merchandising of the finished items -Through vertical integration a firm gained control of production at every step of the way—from raw materials through processing to the transporting and merchandising of the finished items. In 1899, the United Fruit Company began to build a network of wholesale houses in the United States, and within two years it had opened distribution centers in twenty-one major cities. Eventually, it controlled an elaborate system of Central American plantations and temperature-controlled shipping and storage facilities for its highly perishable bananas. The firm became one of the nation's largest corporations.

What accounts for the rise of a consumer society and how did various groups participate in its development?

The growth of industry and the spread of cities has a profound impact on all regions of the United States. During the final third of the nineteenth century, the standard of living climbed, although unevenly and erratically. Real wages (pay in relation to the cost of living) rose, fostering improvements in nutrition, clothing, and housing. More and cheaper products were within the reach of all but the very poor. Food from the farms became more abundant and varied—grains for bread or beer; poultry, pork, and beef; fresh fruits and vegetables from California. Although many Americans continued to acknowledge the moral value of hard work, thrift, and self-sacrifice, the explosion of consumer goods and services promoted sweeping changes in behavior and beliefs. Leisure, play, and consumption became part of a new ideal and measure of success. Nearly everyone felt the impact of the trans- formation from a producer to a consumer society, although in vastly and increasingly different ways. Chain Stores Mail Order

Horizontal Integration

The merger of competitors in the same industry -Entailed gaining control of the market for a single product -The most famous case = Standard Oil Company, founded by John D. Rockefeller -Rockefeller first secured preferential rates from railroads eager to ensure a steady supply of oil. He then convinced or coerced other local oil operators to sell their stock to him. The Standard Oil Trust controlled more than 90% of the nation's oil-refining industry

Wright Brothers

The prospect of commercial aviation emerged in 1903, when Wilbur and Orville Wright staged the first airplane flight near Kitty Hawk, North Carolina.

Women's Christian Temperance Union

This organization was dedicated to the idea of the 18th Amendment - the Amendment that banned the manufacture, sale, or transportation of alcohol Women's organization whose members visited schools to educate children about the evils of alcohol, addressed prisoners, and blanketed men's meetings with literature -Members preached total abstinence from the consumption of alcohol, but they also worked to reform the prison system, eradicate prostitution, and eliminate the wage system -crossed the "racial lines" in their work by gathering both black & white members

Populist Party

U.S. political party representing mainly farmers, favoring free coinage of silver and government control of railroads and other monopolies -Formed on the basis of the Southern Farmers' Alliance and other reform organizations -Called for government ownership of railroads, banks, and telegraph lines, prohibition of large landholding companies, a graduated income tax, an eight-hour workday, and restriction of immigration. -The most ambitious plan called for the national government to build local warehouses —"subtreasuries"— where farmers could store their crops until prices reached acceptable levels & WANTED GOVERNMENT OWNERSHIP OF RAILROADS -Asked government to step in & have involvement with helping farmers & citizens -To hold their voters, some Democrats adopted the Populist platform wholesale; others resorted to massive voter fraud and intimidation. In the West, Democrats adopted some populist ideals to gain populist votes

American Federation of Labor

Union that organized skilled workers along craft lines and emphasized a few workplace issues rather than a broad social program -Unlike the Knights, the AFL accepted the wage system. Following a strategy of "pure and simple unionism," the AFL sought recog- nition of its union status to bargain with employers for better working conditions, higher wages, and shorter hours. In return, it offered compliant firms the benefit of amenable day-to-day relations with the most highly skilled wage earners. Only if companies refused to bargain in good faith would union members resort to strikes. -The federation went ahead of the Knights by disregarding unskilled workers, racial minorities, and immigrants. AFL president Samuel Gompers believed them impossible to organize and unworthy of membership; this extended to women, who he believed should stay at home (to not lower wages due to competition, apparently). The AFL and Gompers advanced the "aristocrat of labor." -Local AFL members kept some of the Knights policies, providing support for strikers, gathering votes for pro-labor candidates, sponsoring social activities, and publishing their own weekly papers -The AFL only gained about 10% of the working American population, but still became an importance force in their communities. Politicians courted the AFL's votes and Labor Day became a national holiday

Booker T. Washington

encouraged African Americans to resist "the craze for Greek and Latin learning" and to strive for practical instruction -He founded the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama to provide industrial education and moral uplift. By the turn of the century, Tuskegee enrolled 1,400 men and women in more than thirty different vocational courses, including special cooking classes for homemakers and domestic servants. Black colleges, including Tuskegee, trained so many teachers, that by the century's end the majority of black schools were staffed by African Americans -The nation's educational system was becoming more inclusive and yet more differentiated. The majority of children attended school for several years or more. At the same time, students were tracked—by race, gender, and class—to fill particular roles in an industrial society

Spoils System

the practice of a successful political party giving public office to its supporters The rising costs of maintaining local organizations and orchestrating mammoth campaigns drove party leaders to seek ever-larger sources of revenue. Winners often seized and added to the "spoils" of office through an elaborate system of pay-offs -Legislators who supported government subsidies for railroad corporations, for instance, commonly received stock in return and sometimes cash bribes. At the time, few politicians or business leaders regarded these practices as unethical -Appointing someone because they helped you get into office Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act -(1883) reformed spoils system by prohibiting government workers from making political contributions and created the Civil Service Commission to oversee their appointment on the basis of merit rather than politics