CLPS 0700 Final Exam Questions

What evidence exists to support the idea that children recognize and understand fairness?

- Experiment showing unequal distribution of toys to two people by an experimenter versus showing an unequal distribution of toys that already exists (don't observe the experimenter actually giving out the toys unequally) --> longer looking time for the action of the unequal division vs just seeing the unfairness exist - Experiment showing people being rewarded for cleaning up where their boxes are either translucent so a child subject can see that one person did all of the cleaning while the other did nothing (but they are both still being rewarded) or the boxes are opaque so the child subject cannot see the unfairness that is being rewarded --> longer looking time for translucent boxes because fairness is being violated and the child recognizes this

What is Piaget's stage theory of development?

- Sensorimotor: coordination of senses with motor responses; language use for cataloguing and demands; object permanence - Preoperational: symbolic thinking (represent objects with symbols) but not following a logical thought process; imagination/pretending abilities develop; object conservation becomes known -Concrete operational: logical thought and reasoning about concrete objects and understanding of concrete events and analogies -Formal operational: abstract thought and reasoning is possible; can consider hypothetical situations; able to apply concepts to various contexts

In a dictator game paradigm where children can either give 4 candies to someone else and receive 1 candy themselves, or they can deny both people from getting candy, how do they typically respond? What about if they can get 4 candies while the other person gets 1? How does their response change with age?

- When younger, tend to reject disadvantageous inequality (get 1 vs other person gets 4) more (prefer that nobody gets candy instead of them getting less than the other person) - When older, tend t reject advantageous inequality (get 4 vs other person gets 1) more (prefer that nobody gets candy instead of them getting more than the other person) - With age, see an emergence of caring about advantageous inequality and altruistic behaviors and tendencies

What is the meaning of each of the following values in terms of correlations: -1, 1, 0, 0.8, 0.3

-1 = perfectly negative 1 = perfectly positive 0 = no relationship 0.8 = fairly strong correlation 0.3 = fairly weak correlation

What is the facial action coding system?

A taxonomy for understanding facial expressions and their meanings created based on Duchenne's work

A stimulus that elicits high arousal and positive valence is likely to make a person feel... A. excited and happy B. relaxed but happy C. relaxed but upset D. excited and upset

A. excited and happy

If given a sum of money and told to distribute it between self and other person and put in a room with a mirror, how do you divide the money? A. give equal distribution B. give other person more and self less C. give self more and other person less D. give all to other person and keep none

A. give equal distribution

When there is a perfectly positive correlation between two variables, what happens to the other variable when one of the variables increases? A. increase B. decrease C. stay the same D. depends on the variables of interest

A. increase

According to the facial feedback theory, how will one's ratings of the entertainment value of cartoons change if holding a pencil in mouth in a way that shapes mouth into a smile? A. ratings will be more positive B. ratings will not change C. ratings will be more negative D. none of the above

A. ratings will be more positive

How does the idea of "helpful babies" contradict Piaget's stage theory of development?

According to Piaget, in infancy, children are in the sensorimotor stage and they are unable to understand abstract concepts, such as others' intentions or mental states --> at 18 months, babies attempt to help others by picking up things that they drop and giving them back to them + helping them complete tasks that they are struggling with --> this contradicts Piaget because it suggests that they are able to act altruistically and understand that others require assistance sometimes, which should not be possible at this age per the stage theory

How does receipt of a larger reward after completing a task impact one's perception of it? (Wooden dowel experiment)

After completing time-consuming but purposeless task, those who were given a larger reward ($20) did not experience an attitude change about their dislike of the task because they justified doing it as a way of obtaining such a good reward, so they had to lie to other people when recruiting them to do the task versus people who received a smaller reward ($1) experienced an attitude change because the reward was not enough to justify the effort so they had to change their opinion of the task to one in which they enjoyed the task and thought it was useful to justify their investment of effort, so when they had to recruit people to do the task, they did not have to lie and say that they liked it when they didn't actually like it because they had already convinced themselves that they liked it --> change preferences to alleviate discrepancy between what we think and what we do

What does the video about triangles and circles moving around tell us about innate human tendencies and desires?

After watching the triangle and circle video, many people describe the series of events that occurs by giving the shapes human-like characteristics and describing their motion with movements/actions and even attributing motivations and emotions to them --> this demonstrates the human desire to explain people's intentions and behavior through emotional experiences to better understand the world -- similar to how we attribute mental states to people when we don't actually know their mental states

How are the following brain areas involved in the experience of and response to emotions: amygdala, ventral striatum, insult, anterior cingulate cortex?

Amygdala: fear -- "fight or flight" Ventral striatum: reward-based behaviors Insula: disgust Anterior cingulate cortex: pain -- emotional and physical *Emotional experiences are not limited to one part of the brain -- each emotional experience activates many parts of the brain

What is the relationship between sensations, affect, and emotion?

Combining sensations creates an awareness of whether they are positive/negative and aroused/calm (affect) which evokes a discrete set of emotions

At what age are children able to discriminate fear, sadness, and interest? A. 1 month B. 7 months C. 12 months D. 3 years

B. 7 months

After watching the helper/hinderer paradigm, how do children respond to presentations of the helper and hinderer figures? A. They prefer the hinderer over the helper B. They prefer the helper over the hinderer C. They prefer both figures equally D. They do not display a preference for either figure

B. They prefer the helper over the hinderer

To determine a mechanism for Southern tendency to exhibit "dominating" behavior after being insulted, investigators studied their testosterone and cortisol levels --> what did they find? A. both decreased with insult B. both increased with insult C. T increased but C decreased with insult D. T decreased but C increased with insult

B. both increased with insult

Meltzoff's experiment involving adults and machines taking cubes off of a wooden dowel and then children copying their behavior and accomplishing the task despite never observing the outcome is an example of what type of social behavior? A. imitation B. emulation C. mentalization D. simulation

B. emulation

When attending a religious service, a person who listens attentively and remains quiet is likely to be a _____ self-monitor whereas a person who starts talking to their neighbor and then leaves mid-way through the service because their favorite football team is playing is likely to be a _____ self-monitor A. high, high B. high, low C. low, high D. low, low

B. high, low

On a Likert scale, what does a rating of 1 imply? A. strong agreement B. strong disagreement C. weak agreement D. weak disagreement

B. strong disagreement

What is one way that emotions can be used to communicate a need? What is the general response when receive communication of another person's needs?

Babies cry to tell adults that they need something --> motivates adults to change their behavior to pay attention to the baby and give them what they want/need

What makes an emotion? What are different theories for how they operate?

Basic emotions: emotions are categorical experiences, each of which is separate from the others Appraisal: emotions are all "tied up" in one cognitive spot and interaction between emotion and cognitive ability allows appraisal of a situation to determine the emotion that it evokes Constructivist: emotions are constructed from different experiences and other emotions so different emotions cannot be separated

A poll result revealing that 95% of students in a class believe they will score about the average on the final exam can be explained by what phenomenon?

Better-than-average effect -- desire to maintain, increase, or protect one's positive self-views which often leads to the perception that we will be better than the average on something when in reality, everybody cannot be above the average (average implies half is above and half is below)

What behavior enables cultural transmission? A. behavioral simulation B. behavioral emulation C. behavior modification D. pure imitation

D. pure imitation

At what age do infants demonstrate a sense of self (pass mirror self-recognition test)? A. infants have this ability at birth B. 6 months C. 18 months D. 3 years old

C. 18 months

Which of the following cannot influence statistical significance of a result? A. Magnitude of the effect B. Variability in the data C. Characteristics of study subjects D. Sample size

C. Characteristics of study subjects

Which of the following is not one of Eckman's basic emotions? A. surprised B. fear C. curiosity D. disgust

C. curiosity

What is the most accurate description of the experience of patient EVR? A. initially mean old man that became much happier once part of his OBF was removed B. removal of part of his OBF caused him to lose his memory C. initially a "pillar of society" that became a walking disaster after part of his OBF was removed D. became permanently disabled after part of his OBF was removed

C. initially a "pillar of society" that became a walking disaster after part of his OBF was removed

Which of the following is not a component of an attitude? A. cognition (thoughts) B. affect (emotion) C. sensation D. behavior (action)

C. sensation

According to the idea of a "culture of honor," what would be an individual's response to being insulted? A. accept the insult and move on as to not create tension/problems B. ask that the insulter not insult you again C. take any necessary means, including violence, to get revenge on the insulter and show them that their behavior was unacceptable D. praise the insulter and treat them as an honored being that is more worthy of praise than oneself

C. take any necessary means, including violence, to get revenge on the insulter and show them that their behavior was unacceptable

According to the first impression matrix, if someone were walking towards you in a dark alley, what quadrant would you hope that they fall into? A. I -- cold + competent B. II -- warm + competent C. III -- warm + incompetent D. IV -- cold + incompetent

C. warm + incompetent

What are the forces that motivate us?

Conformity (look to peers for guidance), love (relationships between people), self ("anchor" to understand others; use others to understand self -- who we are depends on how others see us)

What characterizes a Duchenne ("real") smile from a fake/artificially-created smile?

Crows feet in corders of eyes, not just about mouth tilting upwards

In which culture is self-esteem likely to be the highest? A. Japanese B. Chinese C. Indian D. American

D. American

What are the two components/dimensions of affect? A. duration and arousal B. duration and valence C. salience and arousal D. arousal and valence

D. arousal and valence

According to the Ben Franklin effect, if a professor wants to get better ratings on the end of the semester course reviews, what should they do throughout the semester? A. give students candy B. tell students personal stories about themselves so students get to know the better C. tell students they will lose points in the class if they give a bad rating D. ask students for favors or to help during class

D. ask students for favors or to help during class

What did Nisbett and Cohen hypothesize was the cause of the Southern propensity for violence/increased violence in the South than in the North? A. temperature -- South is hotter B. national history -- South had slavery which was a very violent experience for all involved C. poverty -- more poverty in South D. culture of honor -- desire to get revenge when a wrongdoing is committed against oneself

D. culture of honor -- desire to get revenge when a wrongdoing is committed against oneself

Which of the following is NOT a reason that we make snap judgments about people? A. information overload -- we are exposed to so much info and we have to figure out what is important and attend to it while ignoring everything else B. time -- don't have time to learn every aspect of people before deciding how we feel about them C. minimal info -- can only intake a little bit of info about people (typically the most readily available info -- appearance) so have to utilize it to make inferences about other aspects of them (ex: personality) D. effort conservation -- don't want to waste energy collecting and storing more info about people so just decide based on whatever is most readily available and quickest/most simple E. all of the above are reasons why we make snap judgments

D. effort conservation -- don't want to waste energy collecting and storing more info about people so just decide based on whatever is most readily available and quickest/most simple

Which of the following is NOT a domain of self-esteem? A. other's approval B. fashion sense C. academic competence D. moral

D. fashion sense

At 3 months old, children are able to discriminate between which emotions? A. happy, sad, fear B. happy, sad, surprise C. sad, fear, interest D. happy, surprise, anger

D. happy, surprise, anger

What is the difference between descriptive versus inferential statistics in terms of the populations they consider?

Descriptive statistics describe the observed situation (the study population) whereas inferential statistics allows generalization beyond the sample population to the larger target population/general population through use of randomization in either an experimental group or a control group

Who murders?

Dry plains -- herding communities (have to protect flock because that's your livelihood --> if anyone steals your flock, you have no livelihood vs. pretty hard to steal someone's farm in farming communities living on wet plains)

Which of the following could be an artifact in an experiment? A. experimenter bias B. placebo effect C. evaluation apprehension D. task demand E. all of the above F. none of the above

E. all of the above

What motivates people to endure hazing/join organizations where they must endure hazing to become a member?

Effort justification -- preference/desire to be part of the organization drives effort justification so it seems normal and acceptable that one must undergo suffering to be involved

What was Darwin's argument about the adaptability of emotions?

Emotion prepares individuals for action (ex: fear triggers alarm system to flee)

How are expressions adaptive? For example, how does a fear expression serve its purpose?

Expressions facilitate response to the emotions they display. A fear expression involves open eyes and nostrils, which enables greater info intake + both are necessary if one were to flee, the logical response to fear versus a disgust expression involves squinted eyes and scrunched nostrils, which prevents as much exposure to and intake of info.

Which is not a hypothesis of the means of human influence? A. Individual shapes situation B. Situation shapes individual C. Situations often invisible D. Situations influence perception of others E. History of situations changes present actions F. All are hypothesized means of human influence

F. All are hypothesized means of human influence

What is an example of archival data?

Facebook, YouTube, Twitter, newspapers

True/false: someone with a shorter response latency to a question/ demand has a weaker attitude about the object of the question/ demand

False -- a shorter response latency to a question/demand indicates a stronger, more conscious attitude about the object of the question/demand

True/false: according to Bem's self-perception theory, we know our preferences and this informs how we act/behave

False -- according to self-perception theory, our preferences are largely unknown to us and we only come to know them through our actions --> our preferences reveal who we are and what we like

True/false: our mental representations follow the logic of "I have eyes, you have eyes, we both look"

False -- both adults and children have a latent mental representation underlying their understanding of the world so we create another mental representation in which we both have the original mental representation so we can engage in joint attention and perceive the utility of an object in achieving our shared goal

True/false: children will only imitate behaviors if they understand why the behaviors are done

False -- children imitate adults' behaviors regardless of if they are logical or not, if they understand them or not, or if they were told to do them or not under the assumption that adults possess knowledge that children don't and that information is what drives the behavior --> this pure imitation regardless of understanding is what allows culture to persist

True/false: children prefer to play with people whose preferences differ from their own because it provides an alternative perspective in the game they are playing together

False -- children prefer to play with people whose preferences match their preferences (as seen in graham cracker vs broccoli experiment, children can map their own preferences onto other people if they have already established them, but they struggle to hold others' preferences in their minds and map other people's preferences onto their own to understand how they are similar/different if they don't know their own preferences first, which often happens because most situations are new to them and they have not pre-determined their preferences ahead of time)

True/false: emotion is a purely psychological experience

False -- emotion is the response of an organism to a stimuli that involves physiological arousal, expressive behaviors, and a conscious psychological experience of the feeling itself

True/false: impression management is a technique individuals use to help maintain a positive self-image

False -- impression management is a technique used to control how other people view us

True/false: children will only imitate a behavior if they have observed it in its entirety/it has been modeled completely for them

False -- in puzzle box experiment, children understand that they want to get the cubes off of the ends of the wooden dowel after seeing experimenters and machines trying to get the cubes off but never see the end result of the cubes actually being taken off

True/false: through self-presentation, we display our true self to others

False -- in self-presentation, we present what we want to be like/what we want others to think we are like rather than our true self

True/false: it does not matter who or what does an action, as long as it is performed, even partially, a child can make inferences about the end goal and imitate it to completion

False -- inference is only possible when humans do the actions --> if observe a machine doing the action, cannot make inference because machines are not perceived to be social entities and in order to employ a theory of mind, must perceive that something is a social entity that also has a theory of mind motivating their actions

True/false: Todrov's work compared facial trustworthiness to attractiveness

False -- it compared facial trustworthiness to dominance (dimensions we pay attention to most when making snap judgments about people

True/false: moods are of short duration but high intensity

False -- moods are feeling states of relatively lower intensity and longer duration

True/false: preferences are temporary and short-lived, so they are easily forgotten and changed

False -- preferences hold/ensure for many years if unchallenged

True/false: tests producing a p-value ≥ 0.05 are considered statistically significant

False -- statistical significance is indicated by a p-value ≤ 0.05

True/false: when using the first impression matrix to classify groups, homeless people are likely to be classified into quadrant II

False -- they are very unlikely to be classified into quadrant II (warm + competent), but rather, likely to be classified into quadrant IV (cold + incompetent) if they are even classified at all (some people don't consider them worthy of being classified as a group of people)

True/false: humans are able to encode and understand all of the information they are exposed to in the external world

False -- we can only take in a very small amount of the massive quantity of information we are exposed to every day --> the info that we are able to take in is taken in very quickly and used to structure and understand the world by informing our creation of lasting impressions of people and events

True/false: we rely on our caregivers exclusively for physiological support

False -- we rely on our caregivers for both physiological and psychological support, particularly during times of high stress

True/false: self-esteem is based purely on self-assessments to oneself

False: a major component of self-esteem is our perception of where we "stand" with others and how others regard us (sociometer hypothesis)

True/false: the presence of a mirror makes people more moral

False: the presence of a mirror brings behavior more into alignment with the "self" which may be more or less moral -- reflects internal desires and motivations (actions more consistent with attitudes)

How is a within-subjects design different from a between-subjects design for an experiment?

For within-subjects design, an individual's results are compared to themselves as they receive both the experimental manipulation and the non-manipulation condition. In contrast, for a between-subjects design, paired data includes observations from two different individuals, one of which received the manipulation and one of which did not.

Generally, what happens when figures used in social development experiments are presented without eyes (after being presented with eyes in the initial experiment)? Why does this occur?

Generally, if an experiment is repeated with eye-less figures, the effects observed in the initial experiment do not hold because for children, eyes are an indication that the figures should be perceived as social beings with mental representations and intentions --> if they don't have eyes, then they are less likely to be social beings and therefore less likely to have mental representations or intentions, so it is not possible for children to develop a preference for them because they cannot understand why they do the actions they do

What is the formula for cognitive dissonance?

Get person to do x, if they favor the model, preference for x should increase

What does Demascio's somatic marker hypothesis theorize about the relationship between the body and emotions?

He argues that the body acts as a way to move about the world and it provides info about whether decisions will be beneficial or not based on associated emotional experiences (body guides decision-making, even at a subconscious level -- ex: sweating when in potentially stressful situation even before conscious recognition of one's stress/nervousness)

What is the Ben Franklin effect?

If ask people for favors, they feel indebted to you --> makes them like you more because they have to justify investing effort in helping you

After being insulted by an experimenter, how does a person from the South respond to walking towards them in a hallway (game of chicken; one person will have to move out of the way of the other) compared to when not insulted?

If insulted first, give much less room before ducking out of the way/stepping to the side to avoid colliding versus if not insulted, give much more room and step to the side when they are much farther apart

In a free choice paradigm involving two objects, what happens to your perception of the object that you receive if you originally rated the two objects similarly? What about if you originally rated them very differently (strong preference for one over the other)?

If original ratings were similar, overvalue the one you take home even if initially you didn't rate it much higher or lower than the other one. If original ratings were very different, preference for the one you take home increases vs preference for the one you leave behind decreases.

How do rationalizations that self is brave and that self has a penance to pay impact choice of holding weight versus getting electric shock in eating worms experiment by Comer & Laird?

If rationalize eating worms by convincing self that self is brave, so eating worms is not a big deal, or that self has a penance to pay so eating worms is payment for past wrongdoings, but then not forced to eat worms and instead given choice to receive electric shocks or hold a heavy weight, more likely to choose getting electric shock than holding a weight because the severity of getting the shocks better matches what they have prepared themselves to do

What is the difference between independent and interdependent/ collectivist cultures in terms of their sense of self?

In independent cultures (Western), focus is on the individual and belief is that oneself is independent of others versus in interdependent cultures (non-Western), the perception is that oneself is critically related to/connected to/affected by others

How does simulation theory explain infant imitation of parental behavior?

Infants see parents smile, so they smile to "try it out" --> it makes them feel good, so they determine that they should continue to imitate the adults so they will continue to feel good

What is the main function of emotion?

Motivational system -- inspires action

What does the phrase "the pain of social exclusion" mean?

Neurologically, social exclusion (being excluded by others in a social setting) is characterized by the same brain activity as physical pain -- activation of the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) for both with more activity as an individual feels more distress about being excluded or experiences more physical pain

What is the social brain hypothesis?

Our brains are big + flexible to account for complex and interconnected social world -- bigger group/community = bigger brain

How do different professions explain behavior?

Philosophers: consider what people should do Sociologists: observe what people actually do Economists: theorize why people do what they do Psychologists: question what people do and try to intervene to change what they do

On a mirror self-recognition test, what behavior indicates success/passing the test?

Reaching towards your own head to remove a red dot placed on your forehead instead of reaching towards your reflection in the mirror

What do Likert scales measure?

Rough approximation of attitude towards a stimulus

How does one's childhood and home life affect their evaluation of self-esteem?

The domains in which one bases their self-esteem depend on their family's values and priorities which have been taught to them since their youth

What does it mean for a study result to be significant?

The result is unlikely to be random/to occur by random chance alone

How did New Guinean tribesmen compare to American undergraduates on Paul Eckman's test of the universality of emotions?

They performed equally as well as the American undergraduates, correctly identifying the emotional expression matching the description in the story 80-90% of the time

True/false: children prefer figures that punish "bad" guys and help "good" guys over figures that punish "good" guys and help "bad" guys

True

True/false: humans desire to have a positive self-image and will do whatever necessary to maintain it

True

True/false: it is much easier to change an attitude than to change a belief

True -- attitudes are about other things whereas beliefs are about self, and it is much easier to alter our perception of other things than of ourself

True/false: if total looking time is constant, you are more likely to rate someone as more attractive if you see their face more times for shorter durations each time than if you see their face fewer times but for a longer duration each time

True -- because more looks requires more mental energy, brain perceives that increased energy investment = more preference for stimulus

True/false: mental representation of humans as social beings is necessary for joint attention

True -- because we perceive ourselves as social entities, we must also perceive others as social entities in order to believe we can interact with them

True/false: human thoughts and behaviors are very flexible

True -- necessary to handle complexity and interconnectedness of social world (high neocortex ratio = larger neocortex relative to rest of brain to account for large number of social variables)

True/false: joint intention (goal) arises much later in development than joint attention (perception)

True -- need more sophisticated mental tools to understand that people have latent mental concepts that aren't available to the outside world (necessary for joint intention) versus joint attention just follows the logic of "I have eyes, you have eyes, we both look at the same thing"

True/false: when the crime associated with the occurrence of a murder was a felony, there was no difference in murder rates between the North and the South

True -- only time see a difference in murder rates is when the crime associated with the murder is an insult to honor

True/false: communicative emotional expressions are more common in social settings

True -- use emotions to communicate with other people, so when more people are present, more likely to engage in emotional expressions (ex: smile at them)

What is the main argument of Leon Festinger's cognitive dissonance theory?

We seek coherent models of the world -- want the world to match what we believe about it (new idea that actions inform preferences rather than traditional idea that preferences determine attitudes)

Do attitudes predict behavior? (LaPiere experiment touring Asian couple around the US when anti-Asian sentiment was high -- are they accepted at hotels?)

When brought Asian couple to hotels and "tourist homes" in-person, accepted at nearly every one of them --> when sent questionnaires 6 months later asking if they would accept an Asian couple, majority said no -- attitudes and behavior do not match

How does the presence of a mirror in the room affect one's exit time in the "surgency experiment"?

When someone is told that "urgency" is a good thing and then told that they have it, their positive self image is enhanced --> to maintain the good feeling that they experience from this positive self-image, they stay in the room longer versus if they are told urgency is bad and then told they have it, they feel worse about themselves --> they are more likely to leave the room more quickly

Are emotions innate?

Yes. Congenitally blind athletes display the same spontaneous facial expressions in response to athletic performance as non-congenitally blind athletes -- don't need to observe these expressions to be able to do them yourself

What are Eckman's six basic emotions:

happy, surprised, fear, sad, angry, disgust