CMN 136 Study Guide Mid 1
What is the definition of "networks?" What is network linkage and what does reciprocity, intensity, uni-plexity and multi-plexity mean?
"Networks:" a group or system of interconnected people or things -network organization: is a collection of organizations that work together to produce a good or a service -informal networks often called the "grapevine" => NETWORK LINKAGE: the basic unit of network analysis is a link or linkage. There are three main characteristics of the linkage of interest => RECIPROCITY: is the degree the relationships are symmetrical or not. It may indicate that influence or ideas are flowing only one direction => INTENSITY: refers to the strength of the linkage. The more frequent the interactions, the stronger the link (Not all linkages are equally important) => UNIPLEXITY VS. MULTIPLEXITY: a uni-link exists in only one type of network. A multi-link is more than one
What is the precise definition of "organizational communication?" What was said about organizations and communication?
"Organizational communication:" organizations exist IN communication; they do not exist outside of communication behaviors. In other words, we can think of organizations AS communication
Definitions, directions of communication, networks, control and metaphors:
---------------
Organizational approaches
---------------
Organizational processes:
----------------------
What is the definition of a system? What is systems theory about? What are the qualities of systems? What is New Systems science about? How is it different from Original Systems Theory?
-A system: is a set of things that affect one another within an environment and that forms a larger pattern that is different from any of its parts. A system is GREATER THAN THE SUM OF ITS PARTS. A system is a unique whole. -Systems theory addresses issues of SURVIVAL and success -> the systems theory (organismic metaphor) views organizations not as self-contained and self-sufficient machines but as COMPLEX ORGANISMS that must interact with their environment to survive -QUALITIES OF SYSTEMS: all systems (biological mechanical, psychological, sociocultural) possess certain common characteristics -> INTERDEPENDENCE: the parts of a system affect and are being affected by all constituent parts. When you "tinker" with one aspect of the system, it will affect other aspects of the system -> HIERARCHY: systems are EMBEDDED in one another. One system is a part of a larger system. A system is a series of levels of increasing complexity. -> EQUIFINALITY: the belief that the goal of a system can be accomplished in different ways and from different starting points (Different paths may yield the same results. When one doesnt work, another way probably will) -> BALANCE/ ADAPTIBILITY: systems seek homeostasis (stability, order, balance); balance enables a system to maintain itself and experience a level of comfort; systems are able to adapt to the environment in order to survive; too much balance can lead to stagnation; too much change can overload the systems and cause breakdowns -NEW SYSTEMS SCIENCE: -> humans are different from "amoebas." We do not always seek equilibrium/ homeostasis/ balance- sometimes SEEK CHALLENGE AND CHANGE in order TO EXPERIENCE GROWTH, learning and increase our ability to adapt to turbulence and challenge. -> Human systems need a certain degree of CHANGE and unpredictability to feel satisfied. Too much stability leads to boredom and stagnation. -> Therefore, to properly motivate employees, managers need to create the right amount of "challenge" AND predictability -Different because new systems science is saying we need change to learn and not just have balance in everyday life (at least not consistent balance) in order to survive; we need challenge, with only some form of balance
Know all the information associated with each one of the organizational approaches: Classical, Human relations, Critical, Cultural, Human resources, Systems approach and Learning organizations
-CLASSICAL APPROACH: -> *Max Weber: remember him as the father of bureaucracy -> Frederick Taylor: father of scientific management; believed that there is one best way to do something; used science to determine best way; was the efficiency person; finding the best way through time and motion studies (by industrial psychologists) ->Frank and Lillian Gilbreth: (in book); did 1950 movie cheaper by the dozen about him and his family -> Heenry Fayol: father of administrative management; *know the main thing aboout him, not the whole list -HUMAN RELATIONS APPROACH: (*** no metaphors with this one) -> Elton Mayo--in Hawthorne, so called Hawthorne studies; these studies stored as studies stored as springboard; launched us out of machine metaphor and into the human relations approach; also know that he tested the effects of lighting on factory productivity -> Douglas McGreger: (in book) wrote about different ways to approach ppl in good manner -> Abraham Maslow: (in book) -> Mary P. Folet: (in book) *Note: know these names go with HR Approach -CRITICAL APPROACH: ppl are critical/ suspicious of organizations; ppl who usualy have critical approach are outsiders- they analyze organizations critically-ex) ppl on the "outside" boycotting a company; sites of domination-goal is to emancipate workers from unnecessary oppression-ex) of government agencies made to protect ppl: EEOC, OSHA, Unions *movie Norma Rey illustrated the 3 above points -CULTURAL APPROACH: every group dynamic is profoundly unique, like all ppl; cultures can usually evolve without conscious effort; very interesting/ important to catch differences-ex) Zappos: more upbeat, where anything (makes ppl happy) (combines together to make highly productive work force); works but not for everyone; decor (artifacts): how do they design/ structure the place; observe to distinguish between one company from another; no culture is obedience and oppression; strong culture is a good place to work-can feel something- is something unique and fascinating about this ->1) Values ->2) Heroes: need to have ppl that look up to within organization; makes ppl feel proud ->3) Rituals: exs) annual picnic in summers, awards on award day, picnic day at UC Davis-classsified as ritual and well known ->4) Cultural network: refers to how communication works; how ppl are interacting with each other -HUMAN RESOURCES APPROACH: resources are something that we use to solve something else; also known as "participative" approach- brain metaphor in the fact that organization is a brain because it can learn, perceive, innovate, problem solve, etc.; knowledge is power, ask questions; this approach is a new idea- ex) Apollo 13- wanting to talk to person directly who made the space shuttle; leads to higher motivation to produce -SYSTEMS THEORY: -reins to true to ppl; very broad in scope (about survival); analyzing behavior of low level organisms and seeing what they do to survive; about survival and thrival; systems thinker: someone who sees interdependence of everything-approach of understanding that any type of movement will affect others in that organization; system is greater than the sum of its parts-ex) when discussing family, not only discussing each individual member, but the family unit as well -> Qualitites: a) interdependence of the parts, b) hierarchy (as move out, systems become more complex), c) equifinality (systems are goal oriented)-many ways that ppl learn to survive, just have to redirect, d) adaptibility- have to be willing to change -> systems seek homeostasis/ balance/ stability/ equilibrium- new systems science- ex) kid learning to walk then run, then skate, etc., so dont always want homeostasis, want to continue learning/ thriving -> to do all kinds of things to set us off kilter, to learn; humans need to be challenged- we need to grow -> Cybernetics: subfield of systems theory (the critical method for survival and "thrival" is attending to monitoring one's environment; do this by attending to information and feedback- ex) ppl who ignore signs when body is telling them something --> simple cybernetic process: 1) the sensor, 2) comparitor (decision maker), 3) activator- these are all distinct organizational rules -> ppl need to continuously thrive: they need to pay attention, make decisions, and act -LEARNING ORGANIZATIONS: ->Note: no single person knows everything; goal of this approach is to prevent obsolescence; ultimately something replaces something else that was used broadly; need life long and continuous learning in order for organism (organization) to survive -> ppl of learning organizations are... 1) systems thinkers: are aware that environment can affect them-engages in constant awareness ->supra-system= environment then system then sub-system -> ppl who have complex understanding of how the world is interconnected 2) personal mastery: showing drive to improve, drive to learn, and a way to tell a character and if they are internally motivated 3) flexible mental models: everything in our experience gets stored, trying to make sure not trapped in old way of thinking, need to use information to get better 4) building shared vision: getting ppl all on the same page (having shared a vision), vision is what the company does, its purpose, what it is trying to create/be in the world -> vision should be known at hiring process and continuously talked about -> connect vision with current reality 5) team learning: use this because that is where questioning of mental models (from 3) comes from -> this is where innovation comes from, engage in a lot of dialogue (balances advocacy + inquiry); question-asking; response ->Note: if not making mistakes then not trying anything new
Know who of the historical leaders are associated with the classical, human relations, and cultural approaches
-CLASSICAL APPROACH: -> *Max Weber: remember him as the father of bureaucracy -> Frederick Taylor: father of scientific management; believed that there is one best way to do something; used science to determine best way; was the efficiency person; finding the best way through time and motion studies (by industrial psychologists) ->Frank and Lillian Gilbreth: (in book); did 1950 movie cheaper by the dozen about him and his family -> Heenry Fayol: father of administrative management; *know the main thing aboout him, not the whole list -HUMAN RELATIONS APPROACH: (*** no metaphors with this one) -> Elton Mayo--in Hawthorne, so called Hawthorne studies; these studies stored as studies stored as springboard; launched us out of machine metaphor and into the human relations approach; also know that he tested the effects of lighting on factory productivity -> Douglas McGreger: (in book) wrote about different ways to approach ppl in good manner -> Abraham Maslow: (in book) -> Mary P. Folet: (in book) *Note: know these names go with HR Approach -CULTURAL APPROACH: -> Trujio: "Each organization has its own way of doing what it does and its own way of talking about what its doing"- to discover these ways of doing and ways of talking is to investigate organizational culture -> Deal and Kennedy (1982): argued that business success can be enhanced through the development of a strong culture. If the organization has the components of a strong culture, it will be a better place for individuals to work and will improve individual and organizational performance- they also identified four key components of a strong culture: values, heroes, rituals, and the cultural network
What is the "continuum of reactions" regarding employees resistance to change?
-CONTINUUM OF RESPONSES: to (some) organizational CHANGES (from least resistant to most resistant) -> Ambivalence (experienced internally) (lowest resistance) -> Peer- focused dissent (complaining to others) -> Upward dissent (positive form of resistance that involves discussing and negotiating with management) -> Activism: (organizing resistance with others) -> Refusal (not complying by continuing to do things the old way) -> Exit (leaving the organization) (highest resistance)
What is Cybernetics and what is it concerned with? What are the three "parts" of a "simple cybernetic process?" How does it apply to organizational survival and thrival?"
-CYBERNETICS: a subfield theory -> Goal oriented systems regulate their behavior by processing INFORMATION AND FEEDBACK from within and without the system ->this is the study of how SYSTEMS ADAPT and make necessary adjustments to assure survival -A SIMPLE CYBERNETIC PROCESS: ->1) THE SENSOR: takes information from the environment and reports" it to the.... ->2) THE COMPARATOR: who makes a determination of how on or off goal the system is and gives an order according to the...... ->3) THE ACTIVATOR: who acts in accordance with the comparator's orders. -In order to survive and thrive, SYSTEMS MUST CHANGE AND ADAPT based on what's happening inside itself and in the environment
What is "flaming" and why is it a relatively new "issue" in the workplace?
-Computer-mediated communication has ushered in a new "emotions" challenge in the workplace. Because of the lack of face-to-face contact in CMC ppl are less inhibited to express anger or negative emotions openly and directly. Ppl are more careful and cordial in wha they say and how they act in face-to-face conversations than they are when it's communicated through technology. These common workplace outbursts online are referred to as "FLAMING." ->Flaming includes the use of name-calling, sarcasm, obscene language, emotional outburst, open display of hostility an personal insults.
What is the Critical approach trying to accomplish? Who are the advocates for this approach?
-Critical approaches adopt a radical frame of reference by considering organizations as SITES OF DOMINATION. -> They see critical approaches as a force that can EMANCIPATE workers from dominate and self- serving organizational forces. -Critical theorists examine work conditions to expose OPPRESSIVE POWER STRUCTURES. Critical theorists ally themselves with marginalized groups (e.g., The early union organizers)
What is the definition of assimilation? What are the dual processes involved in assimilation? What are the four phases of socialization and what happens at each one?
-Jablin defined "assimilation" as "those ongoing behavioral and cognitive processes by which individuals join, become integrated into, and exit organizations" ->new ppl coming into the organization -Assimilation is a DUAL PROCESS: ->1) SOCIALIZATION: the process by which the organization influences the individual through formal and informal processes. ==>THE SOCIALIZATION PROCESS INVOLVES: Developing a FAMILIARITY with and feeling recognized by others. Acculturating, or LEARNING THE CULTURE of the organization. Becoming involved in the organization. Developing JOB COMPETENCY. ->2) INDIVIDUATION: the process by which a single employee influences some aspect(s) of the organization. (such as establishing a new procedure or initiating a new tradition or ritual) -PHASES OF SOCIALIZATION: -> 1) ANTICIPATORY: socialization that occurs before entry into the organization. Influenced by family, education, peers, previous experiences, and the media. ->2) ENCOUNTER: sense-making stage that occurs when a new employee enter the org. The newcomer must let go of the old roles and values in adapting to the expectations of the new org. ->3) METAMORPHOSIS: that state reached at the "completion" of the socialization process. The new employee is now accepted as an organizational insider. ->4) EXIT: the time when an employee leaves voluntarily or involuntarily from an org.
What is the human resources approach? What is its "other name?" What are the outcomes of using this approach in organizations?
-Leaders who advocate this approach VIEW ALL EMPLOYEES AS AN IMPORTANT RESOURCE and potential provider of valuable information unique to their individual vantage points within the organization. They believe that "INFORMATION IS POWER," and therefore, are open to listening to employees' ideas at all levels of the organization -> in a participative organization decision-making is performed by every organizational member and goals are set by complete work groups. COMMUNICATION IS EXTENSIVE, and includes a lot of upward, downward, and horizontal interactions. The CONTRIBUTIONS of all organizational members ARE STRONGLY VALUED. Employees are rewarded through the satisfaction of a wide variety of needs. -Also known as the "PARTICIPATIVE" approach -STUDIES SHOW THAT THIS APPROACH TO MANAGING LEADS TO: -> greater group loyalty. Greater cooperation. More technical assistance. More favorable attitudes toward management, and a HIGHER MOTIVATION TO PRODUCE
What is the difference between "prejudice" and "discrimination?" Which organizational approach is most associated with the issue of diversity in the workplace? Why?
-PREJUDICE: refers to NEGATIVE ATTITUDES toward an organization member based on his/her culture group identity. -DISCRIMINATION: refer to OBSERVABLE behaviors for the same reason. -thee critical approach -b/c with critical approach, it adopts a radical frame of reference b y considering organizations as sites of domination
What are the different types of change and what do each of them mean?
-TYPES OF CHANGE: ->1) PLANNED AND UNPLANNED ex) 9-11, (initiatives) ->2) SMALL AND LARGE ->3) MATERIAL (concrete) AND DISCURSIVE (symbolic, language based) ex) moving the office to different location (material), or rewriting the company's mission statement (discursive) -> Each kinds of change affects organizations and ppl differently. Some change is met with uncertainty, resistance, anger, and even, grief. The negative emotions that ppl experience can start out small and then grow into problematic levels of resistance.
According to EEOC laws, what is a "protected class?" And, what are the classes that are protected from discrimination under the law? What does "bona fide job qualification mean?"
-a group that is, under law, protected... => regarding hiring, promotion, demotion, firing, and laying off, an employer is not allowed legally to make decisions based on certain characteristics -sex, gender, race, ethnicity, nationality, age (over 40 only), disability (includes pregnancy), religion and veteran's status -refers to a time when it is reasonable and necessary for a business to hire based on someone's membership within a protected class
What are the challenges and plusses of a diverse workforce?
-advantages: CREATIVITY and the increased ability to solve complex problems are the primary advantages of a diverse workforce. Also, the more diverse the organization the more able it is to attract top talent -disadvantage: Women and minorities often experience "TOKENISM" and limited access to informal communication networks
How did the human relations approach come into existence? What is the "Hawthorne effect?" And how has it changed organizational management practices?
-came into existence as a group of researchers (e.g. Elton Mayo), testing the effects of lighting on factory productivity, inadvertently discovered something new about humans in the workplace. The group of studies referred to as the "HAWTHORNE STUDIES" lead to the conclusion that worker "OUTPUT INCREASED" as a direct result of the ATTENTION PAID TO WORKERS by the researchers -the phenomenon, whereby mere attention to individuals causes change in behavior, has come to be known as the "HAWTHORNE EFFECT" -The Hawthorne investigations served as a SPRINGBOARD for moving organizational theorists from a purely "MECHANISTIC" approach to include a more "HUMANISTIC" approach
Why was the "learning organization" approach "invented?" What are the five features of learning organizations and what was said about each one?
-goal of this approach is to prevent obsolescence ( the process of becoming obsolete or outdated and no longer used) -> ultimately something replaces something else that was used broadly ->need life long and continuous learning in order for organism (organizations) to survive -THIS KIND OF ORGANIZATION EXHIBIT FIVE FEATURES: ->1) SYSTEMS THINKING: Awareness of INTERCONNECTIONS. Combining holism and interdependence, systems thinking claims that for any one member to succeed, all members must succeed ->2) PERSONAL MASTERY: all members share a personal commitment to learning and self-reflection ->3) FLEXIBLE MENTAL MODELS: mental models are those PATTERNS OF BELIEF that shape and limit and individual's interpretation and actions. In a learning organization, members engage in self-reflection, allowing them first to understand and then to change the mental models that tend to guide their thinking ->4) BUILDING A SHARED VISION: In learning organizations, tight hierarchical control is replaced by "concertive control," whereby memebers act in concert because they share a common organizational vision an understand how their own work helps to build on that shared vision. Having a shared vision, an then contrasting the vision against "the current reality" generates a CREATIVE TENSION ->5) TEAM LEARNING: team members communicate in ways that lead the team toward intelligent decisions, with an emphasis on DIALOGUE as the key to team learning. The best method for effective dialoguing is for all parties involved to BALANCE ADVOCACY AND INQUIRY
What does media richness theory recommend regarding the use of communication media in the workplace? What makes media rich or lean? What does symbolic-carrying capacity mean?
-suggests that media vary on how rich or how lean they are -THERE ARE FOUR CRITERIA THAT DISTINGUISH THE RICHNESS (OR LEANNESS) OF MEDIA: 1) the availability of INSTANT FEEDBACK 2) the use of MULTIPLE CUES 3) the use of NATURAL LANGUAGE 4) the PERSONAL FOCUS of the medium -SYMBOLIC-CARRYING capacity: the medium's data-carrying capacity refers to the degree to which a medium is able to effectively and efficiently convey TASK-RELEVANT INFORMATION
What is the definition of "sexual harassment?" And, what is the difference between "hostile environment" and "quid pro quo" harassment?
-unwanted sexual advances -1) Quid pro quo (more rare): "something for something." Hiring, promotions, etc. in exchange for "sexual favors." 2) Hostile environment (more common): When sexual comments, innuendo, photographs, cartoons, etc. create an environment that is perceived as "hostile" and results in interfering with employee's ability to the job
What are the functions of informal network?
=> satisfies SOCIAL and personal interests- Creates friendships, PROVIDES SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL SUPPORT, and enjoyment of talking about topics of mutual interest. => ADDRESSES GAPS IN FORMAL COMMUNICATION- helps to reduce uncertainty that comes from a lack of information from formal channels =>MANAGES A THREATENING and insecure ENVIRONMENT- helps to gather information to deal with concerns when management is providing no or vague and diluted explanations
What is the definition of control? Understand the difference between the four ways that control is exerted?
CONTROL: is a significant concept withing organization theory -control is a kind of discipline OR FORCE that maintains order, consistency, and LARGE GROUP COMPLIANCE -CONTROL IS EXERTED IN FOUR KEY WAYS: 1) SIMPLE CONTROL: use of direct, legitimate, OPEN POWER 2) TECHNICAL CONTROL: use of machinery/ technology/ TOOLS. The technology itself can limit and control what employees can and cannot do. 3) BUREAUCRATIC CONTROL: use of RULES and procedures to control behavior 4) CONCERTIVE: the use of interpersonal RELATIONSHIPS and teamwork. In concertive control, order is accomplished by "NORMALIZING" and reinforcing select behaviors and "pathologizing" and negatively reinforcing other behaviors
?What are the workplace topics of communication?
Main question: Who speaks to whom about what? a) Production/ TASK -instructions, rationales, standards, feedback, indoctrination, culture information b) Maintenance of AUTHORITY -structural chain of command, decision, access to resources c) SOCIAL and relational -developing friendships; of high concern to employees d) INNOVATION -creativity, change, problem-solving, small group-- "THE MOVERS AND SHAKERS"
What are the various roles associated with network analysis? What was said regarding stars, bridges, liaisons, isolates, isolate pairs, cliques, and coalition?
Main question: who speaks to whom about what? -A network analysis helps to identify a number of ROLES that individuals may have in a network --such as stars, liaisons, bridges, isolates, isolate pairs, cliques, and coalition -The following three roles are important; without them, communication would not flow through much of the organization 1) STARS: are well connected individuals in a network (also known as "CENTRALITY"). Usually reciprocated and often multiplexed. Can be a star in one network and not in another. 2) LIAISONS/ BRIDGES: are individuals who link two clusters or groups -TWO RELATED ROLES SHOULD BE A CONCERN: 1)ISOLATE: someone very few or no links in the network 2) ISOLATE PAIR: a set of two individuals linked to each other but not to anyone else. -lack of connection to each other suggests that they are not integrated into the communication systems of the organization. -often means that they are more likely to leave the org. -it is common for sociograms (network analysis) to reveal CLUSTERS OF INDIVIDUALS who communicate a great deal with each other but have limited interaction with other parts of the network 3)CLIQUE: a group that maintains its linkage over time and most likely has many multiplex linkages as well 4) COALITION: different than a clique in that it is a TEMPORARY group. When they have finished their work or project or "campaign," they will disband
What are the causes of negative emotions in the workplace? What are the ways in which you can provide support to your co-workers? What is "emotional forecasting?"
Note: Since the early 1990's there has been a growing interest in the tension between emotion and rationality in the workplace. -In addition to change, other causes of (troublesome) emotions in the workplace include: -> THE TENSION BETWEEN PUBLIC AND PRIVATE in work relationships. -> CONFLICTING ALLEGIANCES: workers often feel many loyalties that may end up conflicting. -> DIFFERENCES IN ETHICS. -Support: Sometimes employees experience negative emotions because of things outside of the work environment. Either way, lending support to a co-worker a key factor in creating a positive workplace climate and culture. Here are three effective ways to lend support others: ->1) EMOTIONAL support: Letting another person know that they are loved and cared for; trying to boost another's self-esteem ->2) INFORMATIONAL support: Involves the providing of facts and advice to help the individual cope. ->3) INSTRUMENTAL support: Involves the providing physical or material assistance that helps the individual cope. -Strong managers should engage in "EMOTIONAL FORECASTING" and create strategies for addressing and managing imminent emotional turbulence in advance. "Forewarned is forearmed."
What are the definitions of organizational culture? According to Deal and Kennedy, what are the four qualities that make for a strong culture and what do each of them mean?
Note: this approach relies on cultural metaphor for understanding organizations -Organizational culture: is the set(s) of artifacts values, and assumptions that emerge from the interactions of various members -Four qualities: ->1) VALUES: the beliefs and visions that members hold for an organization. What do they particularly care about? ->2) HEROES: the individuals who come to exemplify an organization's values ->3) RITUALS: the ceremonies through which an organization celebrates it values ->4) THE CULTURAL NETWORK: the communication systems through which cultural values are instituted and reinforced. (newsletters, the informal interaction)
What are the six metaphors of organizations? What does each of them mean? Know which metaphors align with which of the organizational approaches
There are six metaphors that explain the ways in which leader view and practice organizational design and management 1)MACHINE: organizations have parts that work together to produce products or services. People are considered one of those parts. (CLASSICAL APPROACH) 2) ORGANISM: like plants and animals, the organization is organic- it is born, it grows, it functions, it adapts to its environment, and then it eventually dies. (SYSTEMS THEORY) (LEARNING ORGANIZATIONS) 3) BRAIN: organizations process information, have intelligence, are capable of learning, can change, and can conceptualize a past, present, and a future. (HUMAN RESOURCE APPROACH) (LEARNING ORGANIZATIONS) 4) CULTURE: organizations create and share meaning, have values and norms, and are perpetuated by shared stories and rituals (CULTURAL APPROACH) 5) POLITICAL SYSTEM: organizations distribute power, influence is exerted, and decisions are made (CRITICAL APPROACH) 6) NETWORKS: organizations are a complex of interacting/ communicating, social structures that are channels of influence and power (COMMUNICATION)
What are the various "directions" in which org. communication is directed? ?In general, what are the issues associated with formal upward and informal?
a)FORMAL DOWNWARD -higher authority to lower authority in hierarchy b)FORMAL UPWARD -lower authority to higher authority c)HORIZONTAL OR LATERAL -between peers or people of equal or nearly equal status in the hierarchy d)INFORMAL -casual, on-going =>ISSUES WITH FORMAL UPWARD -LACK OF RECEPTIVITY: managers are often not open to information -POWER DIFFERENTIALS: fear of repercussions for providing negative information -UPWARD DISTORTION: overly sugar-coated "information" doesn't truly inform -SELF-PROMOTION: it is important to be visible to managers, but excessive self-promotion is viewed negatively and even as "kissing up" => ISSUES WITH INFORMAL COMMUNICATION -ACCURACY: employees are more likely to believe in informal information over formal. But, it can be inaccurate or distorted -SPEED: informal moves faster, which can be advantageous in emergencies but problematic if wrong or incomplete -ACCOUNTABILITY: it's hard to trace back to original source and so ppl take more "liberties" with the truth
